Rita
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
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Limbic System
main modules - hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus,
putamen, caudate nucleus, hippocampus |
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Phineas Gage |
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Scanning the brain, functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI,
positron emission topography PET, magnetoencephalography (MEG) |
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Neurotransmitters -- dopamine, serotonin,
acetylcholine (ACh), noradrenaline, glutamate, enkephalins, endorphins |
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Dopamine pathways |
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Serotonin pathways |
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Two hemispheres of brain. |
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Auditory input is processed on the opposite side of the brain to the ear through which it
enters. |
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With left hemisphere damage, a patient will draw an outline that is fine, but the details are
neglected. |
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With right hemisphere damage, a patient will draw only
the details. |
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Corpus callosum is a thick band of axons that connects the two hemispheres. |
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Left/right hemisphere split often shows up in our reactions to
art. |
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Human species
got where it is largely by forming complex social constructs. |
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Visual information flows back and forth between two hemispheres, so each side of the brain has the full picture. |
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Anterior commissure lies below the corpus callosum. |
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Lefthandedness |
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Split-brain
patients |
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Tourette's syndrome showed significant activity in three
brain areas: (1) dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex, which is concerned with generating appropriate action, (2) basal ganglia, which is concerned
with the control of automatic movements, (3) anterior cingulate cortex, which is concerned with focusing
attention on actions. |
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) a loop
of activity in the brain. It runs between the (1) caudate, which triggers the urge to
do something, through the (2) orbital prefrontal
cortex, which gives the feeling that something is
wrong, and back to the (3) cingulate cortex, which keeps attention fixed on the feeling of unease. |
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In OCD, the urges are more complicated than
in Tourette's. Instead of being compelled to shout a word or move a limb in a particular way,
people with OCD are
driven to carry out complicated
routines to still an ever
present feeling of unsettlement
or doubt. |
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Caudate nucleus is closely connected to the amygdala, which gives rise to feelings of fear. |
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OCD
associated with overactivity in the caudate. |
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Tics are
created by flurries of activity in the putamen. |
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Feelings of
dissatisfaction may be
brought about by low
dopamine levels. |
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Eating disorders may be due to faults in the hypothalamus. |
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Brain uses a carrot-and-stick
system to ensure that we pursue and achieve the things we need to
survive. A stimulus from the outside or from the body is registered by the limbic
system, which creates an urge, which registers consciously
as desire. The cortex then instructs the body to act in
whatever way is necessary to achieve its desire. The activity sends messages back to the limbic system, which release opioid-like neurotransmitters, which
raise circulating dopamine levels and create a feeling of satisfaction. |
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Hypothalamus
is a cluster of nuclei,
each of which helps to control our bodily urges and appetites. |
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Lateral and ventromedial nuclei
of the hypothalamus act like
ON and OFF switches for appetite. |
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Dopamine connection |
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Addiction |
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Typical male/female
sexual responses are brought about by separate parts of the hypothalamus. |
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Sexual brain |
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Direct stimulation of the temporal lobe can produce strong erotic
feelings. |
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Is very 'gay brain'? |
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Brain's 'Touch map' -- area
associated with genitals is about as large as the rest of the chest, abdomen
and back put together. -- Somatosensory cortex. |
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Oxytocin
floods the brain during orgasm. |
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If the neural pathways from the limbic system to the cortex are blocked or severed, emotions cannot register. |
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Emotional stimuli are registered by the amygdala. |
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Just as three
primary colors can produce an almost infinite range of hues, so a
handful of basic emotions are mixed to produce complex
feelings. |
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Emotions
need to be expressed
to influence other people. |
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Voluntary
smile circuit; Spontaneous smile circuit. |
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Human faces
can express a vast range
of emotions. |
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Emotional information is sent to the conscious brain and the amygdala
via two routes. The path to the amygdala is shorter, so emotional reactions are faster than conscious ones. |
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Lack of normal brain activity is typical of violent criminals. |
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Amygdala is
underactive in people
with psychopathic tendencies. |
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Thalamus
receives stimulus and shunts it to amygdala and visual cortex. Amygdala triggers fast physical reaction. |
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Emotional brain. More neural traffic rises up from the the limbic system
than down from the cortex. Emotional part of our brain has more power to influence behavior than the rational part. |
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Brain of a depressed person shows less activity than that of someone who is healthy. |
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Depressed person is without drive or desire to do anything, yet abnormally
fixated on their
intense emotional state. |
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Brain areas overactive
in depression form a vicious circle of negative feeling. |
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Anatomy of joy |
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For years, scientists have
documented a connection between mania, depression and creativity. |
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Tennyson family tree |
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Creative life of Robert Schumann |
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Brain's raw material is information. |
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Recognition |
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Visual cortex: V1, General
scanning; V2, stereo vision; V3, depth and distance; V4, color; V5, motion;
V6 determines objective position of object. |
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"Where" path: V1 -- V2 -- V3 -- V5 -- V6 |
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"What" path: V1 -- V2 -- V4 |
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Neural pathways that convey sound information to different
parts of the brain. |
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Smell goes straight to the limbic system, a fast route to the brain's
emotional center. |
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Vast majority
of the cortex is given over to sensory processing -- only the frontal lobes are dedicated to non-sensual tasks. |
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All incoming sensory
information (except smell) goes first to the thalamus. |
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Thalamus
acts as a relay station, shunting incoming data onto appropriate cortical areas for processing. |
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Recognizing someone is a process, most of which is done unconsciously. |
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Cortical "who?"
recognition pathway ends in the
frontal area with the conscious
acknowledgment that a person
is familiar. |
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Phantom limbs
are commonly felt for a long time after the real
limb has been
amputated. |
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Many people hear apparently divine messages when they are in a state of excitement or stress. |
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Phantom tastes and smells are well documented. |
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Imaginary smells are a common feature in early
Parkinson's disease. |
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People who are depressed often report they can smell themselves or have a bad taste in their mouth. |
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Patterns in the mind -- hallucinations, sounds, noises, voices; distinguish
between externally
and internally
generated stimuli. |
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Illusions |
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Language
allows us to juggle ideas in a uniquely creative way. |
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Language
areas of the brain are mainly in the left hemisphere. Wernicke's area makes spoken language
comprehensible. Broca's area generates speech and may contain a "grammar module." Annular gyrus is concerned with meaning. |
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Animal noises,
including Birdsong,
differ from language in that they are largely hardwired and generated by the unconscious brain |
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Music |
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Words and music are processed in different parts of the brain. |
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Brain responds differently to a word according to whether (1) hearing
it spoken, (2) seeing it written down, (3) speaking it, (4) considering which other words it relates to. |
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Switch in brain
activity from the language areas to the parietal lobes where spatial tasks are processed. |
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Reading activates part of the
visual cortex. |
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Listening
to speech makes the auditory cortex light up. |
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Thinking about words makes Broca's area -- the articulation
center -- light up. |
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Thinking
about words and speaking generates widespread activity. |
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Some types of dyslexia may be due to what is
known as a dislocation disorder -- a missing
or inactive connection between two brain modules. |
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Reading and writing involves more than just the language areas
-- visual cortex feeds
information in; the motor cortex is required to activate muscles for writing. |
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In the human
brain, the area that
processes language in
the left hemisphere is larger than the equivalent area in the right hemisphere. |
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Stuttering
may be due to competition for dominance between left and right hemispheres. Neither side can decide which is in control, so that both try to produce
words. |
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Gossip --
the need to swap information about each other. Evolution of hominid brain. |
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Human brain holds billions of
impressions, called memories. At night, memory fragments are replayed and reassembled. Each run-through etches them deeper into the neural structure until
there comes a time when memories and a person who holds them are effectively one
and the same. |
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Human memory systems -- diagram |
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Wilder Penfield's investigations of memory.
Dots show the places where stimulation elicited snatches of memory. |
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Hippocampus
is activated when people are asked to recall personal or 'episodic' memories. |
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Finding your way around a familiar place involves the hippocampus, but only on the right side. |
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False memories |
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H. M. amnesia |
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William H. Calvin, University of
Washington at Seattle |
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Jung said that dreaming goes on continuously, but
you can't see it when you're awake. |
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Brain tissue removed from HM's brain included the hippocampus -- diagram |
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As Alzheimer's
disease progresses, the brain
shrivels and shrinks. |
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Brain has 100 trillion connections joining billions of neurons, so the memory
capacity of the human brain is effectively infinite. |
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Some people are able to memorize vast amounts of
information by using various mnemonic tricks. If you cannot
remember a fact, link
it to a meaningful
memory. |
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Alzheimer's disease first area to go tends to be the hippocampus. People with
Alzheimer's dementia often get lost. |
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In semantic dimentia the temporal lobe is affected first,
so people tend to forget general things like the names
of objects. |
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Memories
are groups of neurons
that fire together in
the same pattern each
time they are activated. The links between individual neurons, which
bind them into a single memory, are formed through a process called long-term potentiation (LTP). |
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Sematic dementia, which involves loss of factual
memory rather than loss of personal memory, destroys the
cortical area of the temporal lobe first, where semantic memories are thought to be stored. |
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In Alzheimer's
disease, plaques of an insoluble
protein fragment, beta amyloid, accumulate in the cleft between
neurons, blocking communication. |
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Frontal lobes
are where ideas are
created, plans
constructed, thoughts
join with their associations to form new
memories, fleeting perceptions held in mind until
they are dispatched to long-term memory. |
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Where, precisely, do I feel that "I" am
centered? |
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Symptoms of schizophrenia,
depression, mania, and Attention
Deficit Disorder are mainly due to frontal lobe disorder. |
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Orbitofrontal cortex, prefrontal
cortex, ventromedial cortex, anterior cingulate cortex
(diagram). |
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Orbitofrontal cortex -- inhibits inappropriate actions, allowing us to defer immediate
reward in favor of long-term
advantage. |
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Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex -- things are held in mind here and manipulated to form plans and concepts. This area seems to choose to do one thing rather than
another. |
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Ventromedial cortex -- where emotions are experienced and meaning is bestowed on our perceptions. |
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Anterior cingulate cortex -- helps to focus attention. |
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Frontal cortex has enlarged dramatically during
our transition from hominid to human and makes up about 28% of the cortical area of the human
brain. |
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Back part of
the frontal lobe is
given over to parts of the brain that allow us to take physical action. |
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Language area (Broca area) which articulates speech, and the motor cortex, which controls movement. |
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Just in front
of the motor cortex is
a strip called the premotor cortex, or Supplementary Motor Area (SMA), where proposed actions are
rehearsed before they
are actually carried out. |
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Binding perceptions into a
unified whole. |
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Prefrontal cortex -- this is the only part of the brain that is free from the constant labor of sensory processing. |
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Think
rather than daydream -- prefrontal cortex springs into life, and
we are jettisoned into full consciousness. |
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Phineas Gage
-- self-awareness, personal responsibility, purposefulness, meaning. |
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Functional brain imaging has proved spectacularly successful. |
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Although consciousness
emerges from the cortex, it requires an entire brain to support it. |
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Brainstem, midbrain, and thalamus are essential to support
consciousness because they are part of a system
that directs and controls conscious attention by shunting neurotransmitters to
various parts of the cortex. |
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A person in a deep coma may lock onto a moving
target, so they may seem to be watching those who pass by. They might clutch
at things and grimace when pricked with a pin. These actions are purely reflex but nevertheless
deeply disturbing for those who see them. |
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Blindsight
is the ability of people to see things without being conscious that they are
seeing them. |
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Blindsight
first came to light on the battlefields of the
First World War when blinded
soldiers were seen to.duck
bullets even though they had no idea they were doing so. |
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Blindsight
is easiest to detect in people with a form of blindness caused by damage to
the primary visual cortex (V1). |
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) -- lack of concentration, short attention span, physical
restlessness. So disruptive the normal play and schooling is
impossible for them |
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Amphetamine-type drugs, which raise the level of excitatory neurotransmitters in the
cortex, reduce ADHD. The cortical activity they produce inhibit the limbic system,
substituting thought for action and producing more controlled and
focused behavior. |
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Attention |
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Working memory |
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Skilled tennis and cricket
players have hit a speeding
ball before its
existence can possibly be registered by the cortex, may
be due to blindsight. |
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Reflex actions seen in people in vegetative comas |
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Reflex actions
do not involve cortical activity. |
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Short-term memory |
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For a perception to be laden with emotion as well as sensory content, a parallel processing pathway
must run from the limbic system (especially the amygdala) to the frontal lobe. |
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At its most extreme, low frontal activity may result in catatonia, a state in which people fail
completely to respond
to their surroundings. |
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Thinking is
not just a generic term for the collection of skills housed in the
brain. It involves many of them: recollection and imagining in particular. |
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Thought processing is done consciously. |
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Thinking
requires a degree of attention, a focusing of activity in which irrelevant stimuli are ignored. |
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Two types of attention: (1) automatic engagement of the senses
that occurs when your eye is caught by a flash of movement, (2) deliberate turning of the mind to a
subject. |
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Attention
is created by a flood of neurotransmitters that turns important areas ON and unimportant
ones OFF. |
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Autism |
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Many brain regions are involved in directing and
controlling attention. |
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One brain region controlling attention that is especially
concerned with holding internally generated stimuli in focus is the anterior cingulate cortex, a
region on the inside front edge of the longitudinal fissure, the deep chasm that runs from the front of the brain to the back. |
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Anterior cingulate cortex is sensitive to information from
the body and it is fiercely active when a person feels pain, and also becomes active
when we are conscious of emotion. |
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Thinking --
holding ideas in mind and manipulating them -- takes place in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This is the location of the closely related
activity, working memory. Planning takes place in this area. |
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The ability to make a plan of action is useless without
the ability to carry it through.. Phineas Gage made a
dozen plans a day and was unable to follow any of them through. Essential requirement for following through a plan is to put aside things that are immediately attractive in favor of those that further a long term strategy. |
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Neural ability for long-term strategy seems to be located in the orbitofrontal
cortex -- the region that lies behind the bridge
of the nose and continues beneath the bottom curve of the brain. |
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Basic drives,
urges and desires that motivate behavior come from the unconscious brain and are
essentially reflexive, automatic responses to environmental stimuli. |
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Children
find it more difficult
to resist their
impulses, partly because they have yet to learn
that self-control is
generally a useful strategy, and also because the prefrontal
lobes are very slow to
mature. |
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Until the prefrontal
lobes are fully functional -- which may not be
until a person is in their 20s -- the limbic system is a stronger force A child does not have as much free will as an adult. |
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Orbitofrontal cortex has rich neural connections to the unconscious brain where drives and emotions are
generated.
The down signals from the cortex inhibit reflex clutching and
grabbing. |
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Orbitofrontal cortex appears to be the area of the brain that bestows a quality we
may refer to as free will. |
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197 |
|
Depression
is marked by wide-ranging symptoms but the cardinal feature is a draining of
meaning from life. |
|
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|
In a state of mania a person is euphoric, full of energy, in a state of high creativity -- connections they see between things, which are all often
invisible or overlooked by others, are often used by them to make new concepts. |
|
0 |
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197 |
|
Area of the brain that is most
noticeably affected in both depression and mania is an area on the lower part of the internal surface of the
prefrontal cortex -- the ventromedial cortex. |
|
0 |
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197 |
|
Ventromedial cortex is the brain's emotional control
center. It
is exceptionally active during bouts of mania, and inactive during
depression. |
|
0 |
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197 |
|
Connections
between the ventromedial cortex and the limbic system beneath it are very dense, closely binding the conscious mind with the unconscious. |
|
0 |
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197 |
|
The connections between the ventromedial cortex and the limbic system has a special
status -- this region best incorporates the whole
of our being, making sense of our perceptions and binding them into a meaningful whole. |
|
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198 |
|
Neglect |
|
1 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
199 |
|
Neglect is
best understood as a deficit of attention. |
|
1 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
201 |
|
The story of Phineas
Gage emphasizes that morality,
free will and
responsibility for one's actions are rooted in
the biology of the brain. |
|
2 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Depression, mania, and schizophrenia are marked by changes in the activity of the frontal lobe. |
|
1 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Paranoia --
a state in which everything seems to be linked
together and some
grand scheme. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Mania, in
behavioral terms, is the "sunny" side of paranoia. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Paranoid delusions of schizophrenia also revolve around mysterious linkages, but the grand scheme is usually sinister rather than glorious. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Aggressive and violent
behavior. Heavy neural down-traffic
from the cortex inhibits the amygdala and prevents emotion from rising to
consciousness. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
202 |
|
Throughout history, groups of
individuals (usually young men)
have violently attacked
other members of society. In this
state they can carry out horrific acts of
violence without being restrained by normal
feelings of fear and disgust. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
203 |
|
Roger Penrose of Oxford
University believes that nonbiological machines can never cross the chasm between computation and
understanding. |
|
1 |
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203 |
|
Roger Penrose
has the strong feeling that the conscious mind cannot work like a computer. |
|
0 |
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204 |
|
Consciousness
-- not a thing but a process -- Francis Crick, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, San Diego. |
|
1 |
Carter;
Mapping the Mind |
204 |
|
Biological usefulness
of visual consciousness
in humans is to produce the best current
interpretation of the visual
scene in light of past
experience (either our own, or that of our ancestors embodied in our
genes), and to make this interpretation directly available for sufficient
time to the parts of the brain that contemplate and plan
voluntary motor output such as movements or speech. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
205 |
|
Although working
memory expands the timeframe of consciousness, it is not obvious
that it is essential. |
|
1 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
205 |
|
Episodic memory, enabled by the hippocampal system, is not essential for consciousness. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
205 |
|
Attention
is caused either by sensory input or by the planning parts of the brain. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
205 |
|
Actions
seem to be the result of preprogramming. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
206 |
|
People with
frontal lobe damage respond to cues in idiosyncratic or preconditions ways. |
|
1 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
206 |
|
Men with frontal damage damage often exhibit
sexual aggression in
response to what they see as sexual cues. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
206 |
|
One man changed from a lovable and gentle man to a 'sexual, over forceful pest who will
not take no for an answer'. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
206 |
|
These modern-day
Phineas Gages do not choose their fate. In any normal meaning of the word, they cannot be said to possess free will. |
|
0 |
Carter; Mapping the Mind |
207 |
|
Some illusions are programmed so firmly in our brains that the mere knowledge that they are false
does not stop us from seeing them. |
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1 |
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