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Book |
Page |
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Topic |
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20 |
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Brodmann Areas defined in 1909 on the basis of differences in thin cortical sections. |
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24 |
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1950, electron microscope |
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4 |
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28 |
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Electron microscope magnification 1000x greater than light microscope. 10-9 meters, nanometer. |
|
4 |
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28 |
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Synapse, Charles
Sherrington, 1897; 20 nm wide gap |
|
0 |
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34 |
|
Acetylcholine and adrenaline,
neurotransmitters |
|
6 |
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39 |
|
Human brain average
1330 gm, wide
variation, 1000-2000
gm. |
|
5 |
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Neuronal Man |
40 |
|
Absolute weight of brain
is of no significance. |
|
1 |
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41 |
|
Variation
in brain weight with body weight - (graph) |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
43 |
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Brain of fish, basal ganglia (control of movement), thalamus (relay in pathways going to hemispheres), hypothalamus (controlling basic
behavior, regulating secretion of hormones), cerebellum (organ of balance) dorsal wall of posterior ventricle. |
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2 |
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44 |
|
Fish,
highly developed sense of smell, search for food. Cerebral
hemispheres very thin, specialized
for olfaction. |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
44 |
|
Amphibians and reptiles, similar olfactory center, ventral half of each hemisphere. |
|
0 |
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44 |
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Mammals and humans, olfactory center a pear-shaped lobe on lower surface of brain. |
|
0 |
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44 |
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In partially terrestrial amphibians and the reptiles, the senses, particularly
vision, associate sensing and motion functions in the dorsal parts of the hemispheres.
In humans, it becomes
the hippocampus. |
|
0 |
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44 |
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Neocortex, projection functions of the sense
organs, association functions. |
|
0 |
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44 |
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Schematic diagram showing the brain common to all vertebrates including humans.
(diagram) |
|
0 |
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45 |
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Diagram showing the expansion of
the neocortex from reptiles through a primitive marsupial to man. The most primitive part of the cortex is specialized for olfaction. One primitive area goes 'inside' to form the hippocampus in mammals. Neocortex is small or absent in reptiles. Basal
ganglia, ventricles. |
|
1 |
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45 |
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Fully mature cerebral
cortex, mean surface area, 2200 cm2 |
|
0 |
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45 |
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Two-thirds of the cortex is hidden in sulci, or fissures. |
|
0 |
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45 |
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Number of convolutions, or gyri, increases from almost none in
primitive animals through the primates to reach a maximum in humans. |
|
0 |
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46 |
|
Mammalian neocortex is made up of gray and white matter. |
|
1 |
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46 |
|
Neocortex presents a stratified
structure
with six parallel layers. |
|
0 |
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46 |
|
Pyramidal cells, predominant
type, outnumber all others. |
|
0 |
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47 |
|
The main
cell categories in the cerebral cortex - pyramidal
cells, stellate cells, etc. - (illustration) |
|
1 |
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48 |
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Pyramidal cells, apical dendrite, basal dendrite; spines ~20k per pyramidal cell cover the dendrites. Axon of pyramidal cell runs downward with collateral
branches. |
|
1 |
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48 |
|
Pyramidal cell axons, major output, or efferent, pathway from the cerebral
cortex. |
|
0 |
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48 |
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Stellate cells, interneurons, communication between pyramidal cells. |
|
0 |
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48 |
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Pyramidal
and stellate cells are not
distributed uniformly throughout the cortical
thickness. |
|
0 |
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48 |
|
Layer I, no
pyramidal neurons. |
|
0 |
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48 |
|
Layers II, III, V, VI, lots of
pyramidal cells. |
|
0 |
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48 |
|
Layer IV,
stellate cells sandwiched in. |
|
0 |
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49 |
|
Cellular architecture of the cortex varies from one area to another - sensory
cortex; motor cortex. - (illustration) |
|
1 |
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50 |
|
Cerebral cortex -- made up of a small number of cellular elements repeated many times. |
|
1 |
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50 |
|
Same categories of cell are found at all
stages of evolution from primitive mammals to humans. |
|
0 |
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50 |
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No cell categories are specific to the human cortex. |
|
0 |
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50 |
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In spite of the relative uniformity in the organization of the cerebral cortex, there are some differences between areas. |
|
0 |
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50 |
|
Cortex is not equally thick everywhere, and the density
of cells
and the distribution of different neuron categories through the six layers vary from one area to another. |
|
0 |
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50 |
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The thin primary visual projection area (Brodmann's area
17) contains abundant stellate cells. |
|
0 |
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50 |
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The remarkably thick motor
cortex (Brodmann's area 4) has many large pyramidal cells. |
|
0 |
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51 |
|
Categories
of pyramidal and stellate cells are the
same from mouse to humans. |
|
1 |
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51 |
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Total number of cells under a given surface area does not vary in the course of mammalian evolution. |
|
0 |
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51 |
|
146,000 neurons per square
millimeter of cortical surface in all
mammalian species. |
|
0 |
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52 |
|
There must be about 1014 to 1015 synapses in the human cortex. |
|
1 |
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54 |
|
Distribution
of cell types
varies from one
cortical layer to another. |
|
2 |
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54 |
|
Whatever the
sensory modality, axons stop on their way principally in the thalamus. Thalamic
neurons then continue
to the cortex. |
|
0 |
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55 |
|
Axons from
the thalamus are not the only incoming, or afferents, to the cortex. Fibers coming from the cortex itself constitute another important input. |
|
1 |
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55 |
|
Each cortical area receives a considerable number of
axons coming from other
areas of the same or
opposite hemisphere. Association
fibers, associate
several areas. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
55 |
|
Input and output pathways of the cerebral
cortex. - (illustration) |
|
0 |
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56 |
|
Thalamic fibers stop in well-defined layers, particularly layer IV and
part of layer III. Layer IV can be considered the main
gateway to the cortex. |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
56 |
|
Pyramidal cell axons form the main output of the cortex. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
56 |
|
First output of the cortex is back to the cortex itself, either on the same side or opposite side; association
connections;
other outgoing (efferent axons) end outside the cortex to subcortical levels. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
56 |
|
It seems the function of many cortical signals is to feed back information to the cortex itself. |
|
0 |
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56 |
|
Three major outputs from the cortex: (1) cortex itself, (2) thalamus, (3) outputs of motor commands, which are expressed as behavior. |
|
0 |
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57 |
|
Main entries to the cortex are the axons coming from the neurons of the thalamus. Some fibers leave
the cortex and return
to the thalamus. Feedback
circuits. |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
57 |
|
Pyramidal cells that send axons to the thalamus are located in the deepest layer of the cortex (layer VI) or in the lower
part of Layer V. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
57 |
|
Pyramidal cells sending axons to nonthalamic subcortical centers are situated in layer V. |
|
0 |
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57 |
|
Axons that project back to the cortex come from layers II and III. |
|
0 |
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57 |
|
Cortical connections conform to a number of organizational
guidelines
common to the entire cortex. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
57 |
|
General principles of wiring are
the same throughout the cortex,
regardless of the functional specialization. The network consists of the same cell categories and of similar numbers of cells in each category. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
62 |
|
Cerebellar cortex in
higher vertebrates, including humans, contains five
types of cells repeated many times. |
|
5 |
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Neuronal Man |
62 |
|
Only the Purkinje
cells send their axons
out of the cortex. |
|
0 |
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62 |
|
Purkinje cells form only one layer. |
|
0 |
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64 |
|
Pyramidal cells of layer V of the motor cortex; axons go as far as
the spinal cord; giant cell
bodies. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
65 |
|
Major event in the evolution of the mammalian brain, expansion of the neocortex. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
65 |
|
Mouse to human, Expansion of the neocortex; increase in the total
number of neurons; number of cellular elements per unit of surface area has not
changed. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
66 |
|
Cortex of human 3x thicker than mouse, not uniform in all
layers; particularly affects layers III and V, the main source of cortical-to-cortical connections. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
66 |
|
Mouse to human, surface area of cortex expands, area of association
cortex becomes relatively
greater than that of the primary
sensory and motor areas. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
66 |
|
Mouse to human, increase in the
mean number of connections per neuron, burgeoning of the dendritic and axonal trees. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
66 |
|
Density of synapses per cubic millimeter of cortex is the same
order in rat as in man. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
66 |
|
No sudden qualitative reorganization marks the passage from "animal" brain to human, continuous quantitative evolution. |
|
0 |
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68 |
|
Electric eel discharge,
300v, 0.5 amp |
|
2 |
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Neuronal Man |
68 |
|
EEG 1929, a
few tens of microvolts, oscillate at low frequency. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
68 |
|
Alpha waves,
person resting, eyes closed, ~10 Hz,
relatively high amplitude. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
68 |
|
Beta waves,
waking state, eyes open,
frequency more than double alpha waves, lower amplitude. |
|
0 |
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69 |
|
EEG recordings - alpha waves 10 Hz, awake and resting; beta activity; delta waves, slow, high-amplitude waves, slow-wave sleep; REM sleep, paradoxical sleep, eyes
move - (illustration from recording) |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
69 |
|
Delta waves,
slow, high-amplitude waves, (3-5 Hz, several hundred microvolts), slow-wave
sleep. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
70 |
|
Deep sleep,
delta waves, 3 to 5 Hz, amplitude several hundred
microvolts |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
70 |
|
REM sleep,
intense electrical activity, brief bursts of high frequency, perhaps related to dreams. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
70 |
|
Alpha waves
and delta waves have a repetitive form not suggestive of information. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
70 |
|
Beta waves, no obvious regularity; perhaps suggestive of information. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
72 |
|
Alpha rhythm
may result from an autorhythmic
activity in closed loops between cortical and thalamic neurons. |
|
2 |
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Neuronal Man |
72 |
|
The global electrical events recorded
in the cerebral cortex, electrical
activity of individual
neurons and glial cells, including generation of impulses by the neurons, propagation along axons, transmission at synapses. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
109 |
|
In the hypothalamus and the brainstem, dopamine synapses can be regarded
as "pleasure" or "hedonic"
synapses. |
|
37 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
111 |
|
Limbic system,
inherited from primitive mammals. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
111 |
|
EEG recordings from various parts of the brain during orgasm. Slow,
high-amplitude waves similar to those in epilepsy appear, principally in
the septum. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
112 |
|
Orgasm for man and for woman is the supreme ecstasy, intense waves of pleasure and emotion. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
113 |
|
Acetylcholine
in the septum of a female provoked intense sexual pleasure,
culminating in repeated orgasm. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
115 |
|
The human
brain is characterized by the expanded development of the neocortex. The structures of the limbic system, hypothalamus, and brainstem have changed little. |
|
2 |
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Neuronal Man |
130 |
|
Ambiguous figure. Wine glass or Bikini? |
|
15 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
137 |
|
The mental
object
is identified as the physical state created by correlated, transient activity, both electrical and chemical, in a large population or 'assembly' of neurons in several specific cortical areas. |
|
7 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
138 |
|
A 'concept' is a memory object that contains only a small sensory component, because it is the result
of neuronal activity in association areas such as the frontal lobe (where multiple sensory or motor
modalities are mixed) or in a large number of areas in different regions of the brain. |
|
1 |
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Neuronal Man |
138 |
|
The image is an autonomous and transient memory object, not requiring direct interaction with the environment. |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
139 |
|
Resonance manifests itself by potentiation of firing, dissonance by its extinction. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
142 |
|
When a synapse
is stimulated repeatedly, it habituates; the number of quanta of neurotransmitter released decreases. |
|
3 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
143 |
|
Entry of calcium into the nerve terminal may regulate
the efficiency of the
synapse by increasing the probability of the release of neurotransmitter. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
143 |
|
Desensitization |
|
0 |
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Neuronal Man |
146 |
|
Auditory hallucinations |
|
3 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
146 |
|
Hallucinogenic drugs, LSD, visual hallucinations |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
147 |
|
Sleep lowers the level of consciousness, but is totally unrelated to death. Sleep is an active process, composed of a complex sequence of cerebral activities. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
147 |
|
Albert Hofmann synthesized LSD. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
147 |
|
LSD binds
to the same sites as serotonin, also binds to the receptor of dopamine. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
149 |
|
The reticular
formation of the brainstem controls global aspects of cerebral functioning. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
154 |
|
Attention
manages the relationship
of the brain with the environment. |
|
5 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
156 |
|
Nuclei in
the reticular formation participate
in the fixation of attention. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
156 |
|
Dopamine neurons in the brainstem are concerned with the control of attention, in addition to their
involvement in the 'pleasure synapses' that control motivation. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
157 |
|
Most drugs
that attenuate the symptoms of schizophrenia are related to the dopamine receptor. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
158 |
|
Emotions
involve neurons in the hypothalamus and the limbic system. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
173 |
|
Pleiotropism
- genetics term used
to designate the multiplicity of effects of a single mutation. |
|
15 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
180 |
|
Noam Chomsky
in 1980s claimed that
a genetically determined capacity of language specifies a class of humanly accessible grammar. |
|
7 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
197 |
|
Five stages in the embryonic development of the cerebral cortex from the wall of the
neural tube. -
(illustration) |
|
17 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
200 |
|
Mouse whiskers |
|
3 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
206 |
|
Once a nerve
cell has become differentiated, it does not divide anymore. A single nucleus, with the same DNA, must serve an entire lifetime
for
the formation and maintenance of tens of thousands of synapses. |
|
6 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
206 |
|
Identical twins develop from the division of the same fertilized ovum; genetically identical. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
206 |
|
Human genome,
~20 thousand genes; human cerebral cortex, ~1015 synapses. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
208 |
|
Variability
in neural organization
of identical twins. -
(illustration) |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
209 |
|
Consanguineous
mice have a large
number of their genes in common due to inbreeding for fifty years or more; compare
individuals, same genome. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
213 |
|
Under an electron
microscope, a growth
cone looks somewhat
like a tiny amoeba. |
|
4 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
215 |
|
When growth
cones reach target, movements suddenly cease.
Immobilized cone is transformed in a few hours into a nerve terminal, gradually takes the appearance of a mature synapse. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
215 |
|
Behavior of the growth cone, genetic cost is
modest, great variability in the arrangement
of the first contacts with the target; very little precision in the assembly of the network. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
215 |
|
Epigenetic
mechanisms tune it up, create the final set of neural connections. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
227 |
|
Theory of epigenesis by selective stabilization of synapses. |
|
12 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
227 |
|
Principal features of the
anatomical and functional organization of the nervous system are preserved
from one generation to another; determinism of a set of genes that make up
the genetic envelope. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
227 |
|
During development, axonal and dendritic trees branch
and spread exuberantly; redundancy is temporary; regressive phenomena rapidly intervene; neurons die; many dendritic
and axonal branches are 'pruned'. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
227 |
|
Impulses
travel through the neuronal network even at very early stages of formation. They begin spontaneously, but are later evoked by the interaction of the newborn with the environment. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
228 |
|
Hypothesis of epigenesis by
selective stabilization. - (1) growth, (2) transient redundancy, (3)
selective stabilization |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
228 |
|
Epigenesis by Selective
Stabilization, (1) growth, (2) transient redundancy, (3) selective stabilization, - (diagram) |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
229 |
|
Evolution
of the connective state
of each synaptic contact is governed by the signals received on the mass of dendrites on the postsynaptic
cell. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
229 |
|
Activity of
the postsynaptic cell regulates the stability of the synapse. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
229 |
|
Epigenetic development of neuronal network is controlled by the activity of the developing network. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
229 |
|
Selective stabilization of a particular set of synaptic
contacts during the stage of maximum diversity. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
229 |
|
Variability in patterns of connection
accounts for phenotypic
variability
between isogenic individuals. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
233 |
|
Small number of genetic
determinants with the genetic envelope explains how innervation develops. |
|
4 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
233 |
|
Cortical development is at least partially regulated by activity. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
235 |
|
Inactivity
causes preservation of
redundant connections. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
235 |
|
Cortical development is subject to significant epigenetic regulation through nervous activity. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
235 |
|
Epigenetic regulation intervenes
in the intrinsic differentiation of a given cortical area; development of a
'micro-organization'. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
235 |
|
Especially in humans, remarkable series of brain areas specialized for 'cooperative
understanding' in a social group; language. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
236 |
|
90 percent of humans use the right hand for writing and difficult manual tasks. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
236 |
|
Negative' handprints outlined on walls of
caves of Cro-Magnon
humans are left hands in 80 percent of cases. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
242 |
|
Development
of the human brain continues
long after birth. |
|
6 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
242 |
|
Most synapses of the cerebral cortex are formed after birth. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
244 |
|
Writing
requires a long apprenticeship, which is much easier for a child than for an adult. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
247 |
|
Experience,
which is never the same
from one individual to another, leads to a different neuronal and synaptic topology. |
|
3 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
247 |
|
Epigenesis ensures the reproducibility
of function despite anatomical
variations. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
248 |
|
Mental exercise, either spontaneous or evoked, contributes to the fine tuning of cerebral cortex connections. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
248 |
|
10 thousand
or so synapses per cortical
neuron
are not established immediately. They proliferate
in successive waves from birth to puberty in humans. With each wave there is a transient redundancy and selective stabilization. The result is a series of critical periods when activity exercises a regulatory
effect. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
249 |
|
Growth of axonal and dendritic trees is innate; the selective stabilization of synapses defines acquired characteristics. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
249 |
|
Intimate association of growth and epigenesis and their alternation over time. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
249 |
|
System
becomes more and more ordered as it receives
instructions from the environment. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
249 |
|
Epigenetic selection acts on preformed synaptic substrates. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
249 |
|
To learn is to stabilize synaptic combinations and to eliminate the surplus. |
|
|
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
251 |
|
Observe chromosomes of a human
under the microscope, Blood sample is taken and white cells cultured,
mitosis, chromosomes separate, stained and identified. |
|
2 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
277 |
|
Humans are born with a brain whose maximum number of cells is already fixed. |
|
26 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
278 |
|
Diversification through recombinations within neuronal assemblies, followed by selection through
resonance. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
281 |
|
Epigenesis
that follows birth; activity in the developing
network governs the stabilization
of some synapses and the elimination of others. |
|
3 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
282 |
|
Nervous system is unusual in that its total
number of neurons is fixed
at birth. |
|
1 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
282 |
|
Neurons
that are destroyed after birth are never replaced. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
282 |
|
Axons and dendrites preserve a remarkable capacity to regenerate even in the adult. |
|
|
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
282 |
|
Brain of Homo sapiens probably differentiated in the African plains, in populations of a
few hundred thousand individuals. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
282 |
|
Transient redundancy followed by selective stabilization. |
|
0 |
Changeux;
Neuronal Man |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|