Joaquín Fuster; The Prefrontal Cortex
Book	Page		Topic
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	1		Prefrontal cortex is defined as the part of the cerebral cortex that receives projections from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus.
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	2		Entirety of the frontal cortex, including his prefrontal region, is "action cortex."  It is cortex devoted to action of one kind or another.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	2		Internal, mental, action    that we call reasoning.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	2		Frontal cortex is a "doer cortex,"    much as the posterior cortex is "sensor cortex."		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	2		Frontal cortex does nothing by itself; all it does is in cooperation with other cortices,    with subcortical structures,    and with certain sectors of the sensory and motor apparatus of the autonomic nervous system.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	2		There is considerable specialization of action within the frontal cortex (action domains).		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		As organisms evolve, their actions become more complex and more idiosyncratic,    their goals more remote in space and time,    and their reasons or motives for attaining them more covert, less transparent,    more based on prior experience than on presumptive instinctual need.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		As organisms evolve, the lateral or outer frontal convexity,    which is essential for cognitive functions and intelligent behavior,    undergoes greater development    than that of the medial and inferior (orbital) surfaces, which is critically involved in emotional behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		Only the lateral prefrontal cortex can provide the "temporal gestalt" with the coherence and coordination of actions that are essential for the organism to reach its goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		Capacity of the prefrontal cortex to organize actions in the time domain, which is the most general and characteristic of all prefrontal functions in the primate.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		Temporal organizing function in mammalian behavior provides higher reasoning and creative activity    rather than the minimal temporal dimension of the here and now, instinctual sequence or automatic routine.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		All cortical functions take place on a neural substrate of modifiable, long-term memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		The representational substrate of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its lateral sector,    is made of networks of executive memory,    which extend into other cortical areas and have been formed by prior experience.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	3		Executive functions or operations of the prefrontal cortex essentially consist of the utilization of that substrate (1) for the acquisition of further executive memory and (2) for the organization of behavior, reasoning, and language.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Planning and decision making are two of the major executive functions of the prefrontal cortex.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Executive attention has three critical components, all three direct participants in the goal-directed temporal organization of action: (1) working memory, (2) preparatory set, and (3) inhibitory interference control.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Prefrontal cortex performs its executive control of temporal organization by orchestrating activity in other neural substrates that participate in executive attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Unitary view of memory with a common cortical substrate -- working memory is a temporary activation of updated long-term memory networks for orchestrating actions in the near term.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Working memory is essentially sustained attention focused on an internal representation.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	4		Selective activation of posterior cortical areas    by the prefrontal cortex,    in that process of internal attention that we call working memory,    it is a major aspect of the neural basis of what has been called "cognitive control."		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	5		Since 1971, when prefrontal "memory cells" were first recognized,    working memory, by whatever name, has become the cardinal executive function of the prefrontal cortex.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	5		Notwithstanding the conceptual "Balkanization" of the prefrontal cortex into a topographic quilt of areas dedicated to a succession of supposedly independent cognitive or emotional functions,    (1) all prefrontal functions and areas    are to some degree interdependent,    and (2) the various functions share areas and networks in common.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		Perception-action cycle    consists of coordinated participation of neural structures    in the successive interactions    of the organism with its environment    in pursuit of goals.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		Perception-action cycle    is a basic biological principle of cybernetic processing    between the organism and its environment.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		Prefrontal cortex    constitutes the highest stage of neural integration    in the perception-action cycle.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		In the course of a goal-directed sequence of actions,    signals from internal milieu and the external environment    are processed through hierarchically organized neural channels.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		At each hierarchical level of the perception-action cycle,    there is feedback to prior levels.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		At the highest level of the perception-action cycle,    there is reentrant feedback from the prefrontal cortex to the posterior association cortex,    which plays a critical role in working memory,    set,    and monitoring.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	6		Role of the prefrontal cortex in coordinating cognitive functions,    including the neural structures involved, in the temporal organization of behavior --    i.e. the formation of coherent behavioral sequences toward the attainment of goals.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	7		Anatomy of the prefrontal cortex.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	13		Development of neuronal architecture in human prefrontal cortex.  (diagram)		6
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	15		Immaturity of the prefrontal cortex at birth.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	15		Last to myelinate are the association areas.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	15		Later myelinating areas engage in complex functions highly related to the experience of the organism.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	17		Development of frontal, especially prefrontal, cortex    does not reach its completion before the third decade of life or later.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	17		Higher cognitive functions for which the prefrontal cortex is essential -- language, intelligence, and reasoning,    which rely heavily on the front cortical and cortico-cortical connectivity --    do not reach full maturity until the third decade of life.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		Two weeks before birth,    cortico-cortical and cortico-caudate projections of the cortex    have already reached their adult targets and distributions.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		Newborns essentially possess a large fraction of the connective apparatus that the prefrontal cortex will need to interact with other cortical areas and with its principal outlet structures for motor control.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		At every stage of ontogenetic development,    the structural phenotype of the cortex is not only subject to genetic factors but to a variety of internal and external influences.    Critical among these influences are those that derive from the interactions of the organism with its environment.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		Executive networks grow in the prefrontal cortex and are essentially selective;    they select neurons and circuits among those that have been overproduced in earliest stages of development,    while other neurons and terminals undergo regression and disappearance.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		"Selective stabilization" is the result of competition for inputs on the part of neurons and terminals.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	18		Age-related cell regeneration and loss.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	19		In the seventh or eighth decade of the life of the human, several manifestations of involution are consistently found in the prefrontal cortex.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	19		Much of the decrement in neuronal size is attributable to shrinkage and disappearance of dendrites.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	20		Cytoarchitectural differences between cortical areas may not be as important as are the patterns of distribution    of afferent fibers,    internal connectivity,    and the destination of efferent fibers.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	21		Brodmann (1909)		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	21		Origin of the "prefrontal" designation is uncertain.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	21		A more sensible criterion for definition of the prefrontal cortex is the distribution of thalamic fibers.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	21		Hodologically defined prefrontal cortex -- i.e. of the cortical projection area of the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	26		Brodmann's areas 44 and 45 is the seat of Broca's speech area.		5
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	27		Axon terminals and collaterals of some prefrontal pyramidal neurons extends several millimeters horizontally.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	27		Lateral connectivity suitable for intra-prefrontal association and other interactions including lateral inhibition.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	28		Mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus has two major cytoarchitectonically different components:    a medial component, termed "magnocellular" for the large size of its cells,    and a lateral one with mostly small cells, termed "parvocellular."		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	28		Magnocellular portion of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus projects mainly to the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	28		Parvocellular portion of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus projects mainly to the (newer) cortex of the lateral prefrontal convexity.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	28		Brodmann's area 8, the frontal eye field.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	30		Prefrontal cortex receives direct afferents from the brainstem tegmentum,    the pons,    the hypothalamus,    and the amygdala.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	31		Lateral prefrontal cortex, especially area 46, receives connections from the cerebellum.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	31		Other cerebellar-prefrontal loops course through the basal ganglia and the lateral thalamus.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	31		Temporal organization of motor actions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	33		Major bundles of fiber projections from sensory association areas of posterior cortex to frontal cortex.  (diagram)		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	41		Connectivity of the prefrontal cortex with structures involved in motor function.  (diagram)		8
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	43		Connectivity of the prefrontal cortex with structures involved in emotion.  (diagram)		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	59		Chemical neurotransmission		16
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	65		Six best-known neurotransmitters --    glutamate,    GABA,    norepinephrine,    dopamine,    serotonin,    and acetylcholine.		6
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	65		The most pervasive neurotransmitter, the amino acid GABA,    is the prime inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system,    as prevalent in the prefrontal  cortex as it is elsewhere.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	65		GABA is largely a local transmitter,    which serves interneurons    and acts for the most part upon neighboring cells.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	65		The four neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine) originate in nuclear formations of the brain stem    and project to orbitomedial and lateral prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	66		Glutamate		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	68		GABA		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	70		Norepinephrine		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	75		Dopamine		5
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	85		Serotonin		10
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	87		Acetylcholine		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	90		Neuropeptides		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	94		Schizophrenia		4
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	98		Drug Abuse		4
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	99		Critical connectivity in drug addiction.  (diagram)		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	101		Depression		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	125		Animal neuropsychology		24
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	133		Attention is a neural biological function based on the limited capacity of neural processing systems as well as the need to allocate that capacity to the most effective processing of information at any given time and in any given context.		8
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	134		Attention is a selective processing of the most relevant information.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	134		Attention consists of two complementary cognitive processes --    (1) focusing    and (2) inhibition.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	134		Attention is inseparable from other cognitive functions    such as sensory perception and memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	134		Prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	138		Delay Tasks -- Working Memory		4
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	138		Working memory -- temporary retention of information, sensory or other, for the performance of a prospective act to solve a problem or to attain a goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	171		Human neuropsychology		33
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Cortical function,    in general, is determined and defined by functional architecture --    i.e. by inputs,    outputs,    and intrinsic connective substrate.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		In primary sensory and motor areas,    functional architecture    is to some extent reducible to columns and modules    with their discrete inputs and outputs.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		In the cortex of association,    including the prefrontal cortex,    the architecture is made of large, overlapping, distributed, and associative networks    with multiple inputs and outputs of distant origin or destination.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Most of the cortex of association networks    are "individualized,"    made by personal experience in accord with Hebbian principles.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Prefrontal cortex as a whole is cortex dedicated to action in the widest sense of the word -- behavioral, skeletal, ocular, vegetative, and cognitive action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Prefrontal cortex in its entirety is executive cortex, but its parts can rarely be assigned any particular executive function -- with the possible exception of area 8, for eye movements and executive visual attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Lateral prefrontal cortex is predominantly, but not exclusively, involved in time integrating and organization functions, such as working memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	173		Medial and ventral prefrontal cortices are predominantly involved in such emotional and social functions as the control of impulses, mood, and empathy.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	174		Apathy usually accompanies the same cluster of symptoms associated with disorders of attention and general motility.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	174		Apathy is antithetical not only to depression but also to anxiety.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	174		Depression		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	175		Caution before assuming that depression is a primary mood disorder and not secondary to disorders of cognitive function.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	175		Not uncommonly, patients with cortical pathology    develop depression secondarily.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	175		Euphoria		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	175		Lesions of the prefrontal cortex, even if they do not encroach on premotor or motor cortex, can induced disorders of general motility.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	176		Hypokinesia is characterized by a general dimunition of spontaneous motor activity.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		Theory of Mind -- Empathy		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		"Theory of mind" is the ability of an individual to infer the feelings, motives, opinions, and emotions of another on the basis of his or her expressions, however fragmentary or incomplete these may be.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		Theory of mind (ToM) is an indispensable ability for meaningful social interaction.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		Theory of mind is closely related to empathy, which ToM includes.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		Empathy refers specifically to affective understanding ("emotional resonance").		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	177		ToM extends beyond affect to include cognition.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	180		Set is the preparation of neural resources for expected sensory input or motor response in the course of executive performance.		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	180		The kind of motor response to be prepared for    depends on perception,    recent memory,    and long-term memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	180		Preparation of the the sensory systems (perceptual set) or motor system (motor set) is geared to make the performance most efficient in pursuit of its goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	180		Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has become the staple of formal neuropsychological testing of the frontal patient.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	182		Bistable figures test.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	182		Spatial neglect as a specific form of attention deficit encountered in some prefrontal-injury patients.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		All executive functions operate with a system of cognitive networks (cognits) widely distributed throughout the cortex.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Executive cognitive networks are made of associations between neuronal  assemblies (gestalts),    in some cases widely dispersed from one another,    which represents simpler and more concrete items of knowledge and long-term memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Inasmuch as cognitive networks contain association with action, they are executive networks and extend into the cortex of the frontal lobe.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		High-level executive cognits, i.e. those that represent goal-directed sequences of actions, especially if they are novel or prospective (plans), extended into the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Prefrontal cortex    is the depository of executive memory networks --    i.e. networks that represent past actions,    future actions,    or both.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Executive memory network,    constituting the neural substrate on which executive function will take place,    will be used in attention,    working memory,    planning, etc..		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		At a given time, the executive memory network will cease to be only representational    and will become also operational    to serve any or all of the executive functions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Frontal patients are ordinarily capable of forming and retrieving perceptual long-term memory --    i.e. memory acquired through the senses.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Frontal patients usually have no difficulty with declarative or episodic memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Although frontal patients are not markedly amnesic,    they have difficulties with both free recall and recognition.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	184		Frontal patients have disorders of executive functions and temporal integration.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Lesions of the orbito-limbic region of the prefrontal cortex    can lead to spontaneous confabulation and false recall or recognition.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Interrelatedness of executive function.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Close relationship between prefrontal executive functions and between memory and planning.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		A plan of action    is made of associated elements of long-term executive memory    bound together    into a prefrontal network    that contains associations with future time and order.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Working memory    is the ability to retain an item of information    for the prospective execution of an action    that is dependent on that information.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Working memory    is an essential cognitive function for the mediation of cross-temporal contingencies in the temporal integration    of reasoning,    speech,   and goal directed behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Working memory can fail in many pathological conditions of the brain.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Working memory    is necessary for prospective action,    whether the action is a motor act,    a mental operation,    or a piece of spoken language.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Language can be easily used by humans to categorize and to retain information, and thus may serve as a source of mnemonic devices.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	185		Spatial information can be readily coded with language.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	186		Working memory can be characterized as sustained attention to an internal representation.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	189		Frontal patient's difficulty in temporally integrating behavior    is only evident in challenging situations    and may not surface in everyday life.		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	190		We lead our daily life through myriad minor decisions that are determined by habit and the expectation of immediate fulfillment.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	190		Occasionally, the opportunity and expectancy of higher reward -- financial gain, social approval or satisfaction of a biological urge -- lead us to need to weigh consequential choices in the face of uncertain outcome.  Our decision is then determined by a number of factors, most prominently the amount and timing of potential reward and the degree of potential risk. [Bayesian inference]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		Because of the indeterminacy of rewards and risks, the decision is then the result of probabilistic estimates of both reward and risk. [Bayesian inference]		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		The estimates of both reward and risk may be unconscious, in which case the choice may be called an intuitive, based on so-called "gut feeling." [Bayesian inference]  The decision is emotionally biased.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		In reality, there is no purely rational or purely emotional decision, as both reason and emotion play a role in all decisions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		Prefrontal cortex takes part in all decisions, although its lateral regions are mainly involved in rational factors, whereas its medial and orbital regions of mainly involved in emotional factors.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		Lateral prefrontal cortex plays a major role in all decisions that are the result of temporal integration, working memory, and planning.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		Orbitomedial prefrontal cortex plays a major role in all decisions that are emotionally determined or biased.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	191		A patient with a ventromedial lesion is incapable of making sound decisions because of insensitivity to future outcomes and willingness to take unwise risks.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Emotional contribution of orbitomedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Laterality of orbitomedial function -- more right side than left side involvement in social/emotional functioning and decision-making.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Laterality may be less apparent in women than in men.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Decision-making is the result of the cooperation of all prefrontal areas.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Lateral prefrontal cortex contributes to decision-making the veridical, multi-source, "attribute-based" information within the temporal gestalts of executive sequence.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	192		Ventromedial prefrontal cortex contributes to decision-making the biologically adaptive, "alternative based," value-guided information.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	193		Best-known language disorder resulting from frontal damage is aphasia from injury to the transitional cortex of the left inferior frontal gyrus, the Broca area  (Brodmann's area 44 and 45).		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	194		Language and speech disorder (aphasia)  - (diagram)		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	194		Speech disorder areas of the cortex -- lateral and medial views. (diagram)		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	194		Lesions of the premotor cortex including the supplementary motor area  (SMA) in the medial surface can cause efferent aphasias somewhat similar to the Broca's, although less marked.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	194		All language disorders resulting from damage in the dominant hemisphere are more severe than those from damage in the non-dominant hemisphere.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	195		Intelligence may be defined as the ability to adjust by reasoning to new changes, to solve new problems, and to create value in new forms of action and expression.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		Intelligence includes a number of components -- attention, reasoning, problem solving, verbal expression, memory, abstraction, and the ability to formulate behavioral plans and pursue them to their goal.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		All of the executive capabilities are needed for the intelligent temporal integration of behavior, most certainly when the behavior is complex, original, and creative.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		For tests of frontal lobe damage, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is more sensitive than the Stanford-Binet Test.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		Creative intelligence is the capacity to create new goals, projects and plans.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		Contribution of the right hemisphere in general, and the right frontal cortex in particular, to creative intelligence.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	196		Large diversity of connections to prefrontal areas.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	197		Three major regions of the prefrontal cortex as defined by gross anatomy -- lateral, orbital, and medial.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	197		Lateral prefrontal cortex is the prefrontal cortex of the lateral convexity of the frontal lobe, comprising parts or the entirety of areas  8, 9,10, and 46.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	197		Lateral, orbital, and medial views of the cortex to show prefrontal Brodmann regions.  (Diagram)		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	198		Orbitofrontal cortex is the cortex of the ventral aspect of the frontal lobe.  It comprises mainly areas 11 and 13.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Orbitofrontal patients may show by their behavior a blatant disregard for even the most elementary ethical principles.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Orbitofrontal syndrome is oftentimes indistinguishable from mania.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Criminal psychopathy is another psychiatric condition analogous in some respects to orbitofrontal syndrome.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Another clinical parallel is the one between orbital syndrome and attention deficit disorder (ADHD) of a hyperactive child.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Medial prefrontal cortex comprises parts of areas 8 through 10, and areas 12, 24, and 32.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Most of the medial frontal cortex is involved in attention and somatic motility.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Lesions of the medial aspects of areas 6 (SMA) and 8 frequently lead to difficulties in the initiation and performance of limbic, eye, speech movements.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Lesions of the anterior cingulate region generally lead to hypokinesia or akinesia.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	199		Area 24 is at the crossroads of pathways linking the limbic system with the frontal lobe.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		In addition to testing working memory, delay tasks test the capacity to suppress internal interference.		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Child reaches the mature level of performance of executive function by age 10 to 12 years, relatively independent of IQ.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Planning and executive memory appear to have a similar timetable, possibly with rapid development between the ages of 6 and 9 years.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Formation and retention of motor patterns by 6-week-old infants. Imitate the actions of adults.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Eighteen-month-old children can not only reenact complex series that they have witnessed adults perform, they can also anticipate and create the serial acts needed to fulfill the adults intentions, as the children intuit them.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Well into adulthood, attention span increases, plans become more elaborate, goals include increasing numbers of subgoals, decision-making is more dependent on deliberation, and the capacity to use both inductive and deductive reasoning increases.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Prefrontal structural maturation progresses into the third decade of life.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Significant correlation between IQ and  the increase in cortical thickness, notably in prefrontal regions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Temporal-integrative functions of the prefrontal cortex -- attention, memory, planning -- develop along with its structural maturation.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	202		Attention, memory, planning functions of the prefrontal cortex develop gradually, with spurts between 5 and 10 years of age, to reach completion about age 12.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	203		Prefrontal cortex is one of the last neocortical regions to develop structurally.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	203		Prefrontal cortex is one of the first to deteriorate with senescence.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	203		Generally, normal aging is accompanied by a gradual diminution of attentive functions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	203		Onset of decline varies considerably between persons, usually appearing in the seventh or eighth decade of life.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	204		Influence of the environment in maintaining drive and attention.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	204		In the elderly, long-term memory and its retrieval are less affected than short-term memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	204		Age-dependent decline in executive functions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	221		Neurophysiology		17
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	238		Organization and execution of movement down the executive hierarchy of the frontal lobe.		17
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	238		Preparation for movement proceeds down the hierarchy from prefrontal to motor cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	238		Inhibitory control of motor set in basal ganglia by orbital prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	239		Posterior cortex and subcortical structures are in charge of the preparation (set) of the motor acts that constitute the behavioral sequence.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	239		Role of prefrontal regions in attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	239		Working Memory		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	239		Adaptation of the micro-electrode recording techniques to the behaving animal allowed the exploration of cellular discharge in the prefrontal cortex of animals performing tasks for which this cortex is deemed essential, notably delay tasks.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	243		"Memory cells," attributed to a short-term memory function, which eventually we identified as working memory.		4
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	243		Memory cells can be found practically anywhere in prefrontal cortex, but most common in the area in and around the sulcus principalis..		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	244		Memory cells, first found in the prefrontal cortex, were later found in other cortical regions, as well as in the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	244		Other structures probably cooperate very closely with the prefrontal cortex and working memory, and their memory cells reflect that cooperation.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	244		Prefrontal memory cells are not so closely tuned to the physical properties of the memorandum as some cells in sensory association areas of the inferotemporal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	252		Functional architecture of working memory models almost invariably includes reentry, but some of them include stabilizing role of certain neurotransmitters, notably dopamine and GABA.		8
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	252		GABA interneurons are responsible for the inhibition of distracting or irrelevant information.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	252		Reentrant circuitry with slow-acting NMDA receptors for persistent working memory activity.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	252		GABAergic interneurons for balance between excitation and inhibition, and for inhibition of interference.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	254		Multiple feedback reentry may enable the storage of multiple items in working memory.		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	254		Dynamics of working memory engages the functional interactions of the prefrontal cortex with other structures.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	254		Reciprocal connections between the prefrontal cortex and the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	254		Reverberating circuitry for working memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	254		Most cortico-cortical fibers originate and terminate in upper cortical layers.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	255		Functional interactions between prefrontal cortex and other cortices.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	255		Widely distributed nature of the cortical substrate of working memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	255		Controlling role of the prefrontal cortex over the selection and maintenance of working memory content.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	285		Neuroimaging		30
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	333		Overview of prefrontal functions: Temporal organization of action		48
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	334		Prefrontal cortex is "action cortex," "doer cortex," like the rest of the cortex of the frontal lobe.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex in the parallel and circular paths of the perception-action cycle.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex works as an integrator of current inputs from cortical and subcortical sources.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex operates under continuous constraints from experience (long-term memory), from the neural substrate of instinct and emotions, from current sensory input and motor output, and from feedback of both receptors and effectors.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Organism can produce no sustained goal-directed action, except the most automatic and routine, without the temporal integration functions of the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex functions include working memory and the other functions under the heading of executive attention, which has also been termed  "cognitive control."		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex includes cognitive infrastructure of goal-directed action. That infrastructure is made of distributed, overlapping, and interactive neuronal networks.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Prefrontal cortex infrastructure for goal-directed action  -- at low levels of their hierarchical organization these networks are innate (phyletic memory); at higher levels they are formed by associative synaptic modulation through life experience.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		All cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex are dependent on close interactions with other cortices, as well as several subcortical structures.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Widely distributed and interactive character of cortical cognitive networks.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		Cortical cognitive networks neurobiology, their distribution, their hierarchical organization, and the associative character of the memory they contain.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		All five essential cognitive functions of the human brain -- attention, perception, memory, intelligence, and language -- consist of neural transactions between and within the cognitive networks of the cortex, termed "cognits."		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	335		"Cognits" are cognitive network units of knowledge and memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	336		Hierarchical organization of cognitive networks.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	336		Perceptual networks and posterior cortex		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	339		Hierarchical organization of memory networks (cognits)  -  (diagram)		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	340		Executive networks and frontal cortex		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	342		Frontal action domains		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	344		Not all the constructs of action are represented in the prefrontal cortex -- not the stereotyped instinctual routines, or the sequences of automatic and well rehearsed acts (FAPs).		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	344		Procedural memory is stored in other structures, not in prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	344		Prefrontal cortex intervenes in the representation and performance of a sequential task only during the initial stages of learning.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	344		Engram of a stereotyped task, the procedural memory of it, is migrated elsewhere from the prefrontal cortex, possibly to hierarchically lower structures (e.g. premotor cortex, basal ganglia).		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	344		Prefrontal cortex has represented in it the relatively novel variants of old structures of action, in whatever domain.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		A structure of action is a temporal gestalt, like a melody.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Temporal gestalts obey the same laws that govern spatial gestalts.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Gestalt law of proximity -- close or contiguous elements are treated as parts of the same configuration, whereas distant elements are not.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		What gives cohesion to the gestalt of action is not only a temporal proximity of the individual acts that constitute it, but also their goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Perceptual and motor acts are intertwined in the perception--behavior cycle to form together the gestalt of action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Central representation of gestalt of action is the equivalent of what many researchers call the "schema."		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Novel schemas, plans, and programs are represented in executive cognits -- that is, in large-scale networks of premotor and prefrontal cortex that cross over several domains of action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Biologically critical action domain in the prefrontal cortex that does not appear to be hierarchically organized -- domain for emotion.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Emotion domain of the prefrontal cortex extends mainly through the medial and orbital aspects.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Two major foci of emotional representations within the prefrontal cortex --    (1) orbital cortex,    and (2) anterior cingulate cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Orbital cortex is intimately and reciprocally connected with the limbic structures,    especially the amygdala,    the hypothalamus,    and the monoaminergic systems of the brainstem.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Orbitofrontal networks collect diverse visceral inputs,    as well as inputs conveying information related to basic drives,    general states of the organism,    and the motivational significance of sensory stimuli.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		It is mainly in orbitofrontal cortex    that information about actual and expected rewards is collected --    through the dopaminergic system --    and  funneled to the rest of the prefrontal cortex to drive and shape behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Orbital action domain is critically involved in emotion in two major ways --     (1) by acting on the cognitive networks of the cortical convexity to promote reward seeking behavior,    and (2) by acting upon subcortical structures (the nucleus accumbens,   hypothalamus,    striatatum, etc.) and the autonomic and endocrine systems to support and control the major drives of the organism.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		A second major focus of the prefrontal emotional domain is the anterior cingulate cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	345		Anterior cingulate cortex is an important node in a cortical network that is involved in attention (especially effortful attention), reward, and success or failure to obtain reward.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Executive functions		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Executive Attention		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex use as physiological substrate the actions domains of the executive networks linking the domains.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Working memory integrates inputs from many cortical and subcortical regions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Working memory is at least as widely distributed as the extent of inputs represented in prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Executive functions appear to have certain foci of dominants in the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Major cognitive functions --    attention,    perception,    memory,    intelligence,     language		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Drive is the source of alertness or general attention, and of interest in the world and in the self.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Drive determines the an initiative and vigor with which the organism performs behavioral actions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Drive is provided to the frontal cortex in the form of modulating activity from the subcortical and limbic structures.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Structures contributing to drive include, most prominently, the reticular formation of the mesencephalon, amygdala, hypothalamus, and the monoaminergic systems of the brain stem.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Bulk of all voluntary and deliberate behavior consists of simple and automatic acts, old habits, and familiar percepts, most of it integrated at hierarchically lower cortices and basal ganglia.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	346		Attentive acts that "palpate" the environment in search of significant clues, the intentional and elaborate movements, the continuous monitoring and updating of relevant information. [Kalman filter]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		First and most important executive function is attention.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Attention was aptly defined by William James (1890).		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Attention is the selective allocation of limited neural resources to the optimal processing of neural information.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Sensory attention    and motor attention --    at higher levels there is perceptual attention    and executive attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Highest form of selective attention    devoted to the active pursuit of a cognitive or behavioral goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Attention has two complementary components --    an intensive, selective component,    and an exclusionary one.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Selective component of attention    seems based primarily in dorsolateral frontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Exclusionary component of attention,    the inhibitory control of interference,    seems primarily based in ventral frontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		A ubiquitously active cognitive function such as attention    cannot be localized in any particular brain structure.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Focus of executive attention    would shift from one domain of action to another    as different networks or their parts excite one another    in the perception-action cycle.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		"supervisory attentional system"		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Three major aspects of executive attention --    preparatory set,    working memory,    and interference control.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	347		Actions may involve the executive representation (cognits) of high order, in the form of schemas,    temporal gestalts,    scripts,    or rules of action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		Attentive set    for the coordination of actions    within a large goal directed schema    involves, in all likelihood, the top-down processing    through successive layers of cognits    in the frontal executive hierarchy.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		Set begins at high, prefrontal, levels of the hierarchy    that encode rules,    plans,    and long-term goals.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		Set progresses through lower, premotor and motor levels    that encode more concrete actions for the attainment of partial goals toward major goals.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		Like the goals and cognits    in the hierarchical organization of actions in frontal cortex,    partial sets are functionally nested within larger set.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		In the organization of complex, goal directed behavior,    a cascade of activation    from higher frontal networks to lower ones,    with monitoring and correction action at every step.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	348		Motor attention,    like perceptual attention,    has an exclusionary component.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	349		Working memory can be best understood as attention focused on an internal representation.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	349		Close relationship between working memory and attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	349		Working memory is indeed a form of attention -- sustained attention focused on an executive cognitive network for the processing of perspective action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	349		Working memory consists largely of updated long-term memory; working memory can be legitimately called active memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	353		Planning		4
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	355		Decision-making		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	356		Emotional behavior		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	357		Temporal organization of action		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		Perception-Action Cycle		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		In all forms of behavior,    motor action is not only initiated by new or unexpected sensory signals, but also regulated by sensory feedback generated by changes that the action itself induces in the external environment.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		"Gestalts cycle" -- union of perception and movement in the nervous system.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		Feedback    from prefrontal to posterior cortices    is most likely at the root of what has been termed the cognitive control of attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		A sensation-action cycle can be recognized at every level of the neural hierarchies for sensation and movement, from the spinal cord upwards.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	358		Cortical anatomy of the perception cycle    is made of two hierarchies of cognitive networks,    one perceptual in the posterior cortex    and the other executive in the frontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	359		Corresponding areas of the two hierarchies,    sensory and motor,    on each side of the central sulcus    are connected by reciprocal connections.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	359		Each successive area of the posterior cortical pathways for three major sensory modalities --    somatosensory,    vision,    and audition --    send collateral efferent connections to a progressively more rostral frontal area;    all such connections are reciprocated by others in the opposite direction.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	359		Progressively higher stages of perceptual memory and processing    reach progressively higher stages of executive memory and processing    and, vice versa,    reciprocal connections flow in an orderly manner from the motor to the perceptual hierarchy.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		Perception--Action Cycle block diagram		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		Cortical connectivity apparatus of the perception-action cycle    is completed in both directions    at every hierarchical level.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		Both perceptual and executive networks receive inputs from, and send outputs to, a number of subcortical structures that exchange information with cortical networks.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		Some of the cortical inputs and outputs to subcortical structures course through the thalamus, others are direct.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		The more critical inputs to the cortex are those that come from the limbic system and the hypothalamus,    conveying to the prefrontal cortex information regarding the internal environment.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		The more critical outputs from the cortex to subcortical structures    are those flowing to the basal ganglia,    the cerebellum,    and lower components of the pyramidal system.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		Some subcortical inputs and outputs    constitute loops of connection through the prefrontal cortex,    thus forming the framework for an emotional perception-action cycle    intertwined and cooperating with the cognitive cycle.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	360		To understand the structure and synthetic functions of the frontal cortex in behavior, and its role in the perception-action cycle,    it is helpful to conceptualize all behavior as a hierarchical order of structured units of sensation and action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		Afferents and Efferents of Perception--Action Cycle  -  (diagram)		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		A reflex act will fit the role as a basic cybernetic unit of interaction with the environment.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		Spinal reflex arcs, at the bottom of the sensation-action cycle may serve as an example of the basic unit of behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		At higher neural levels    are representations of learned behaviors,    stacked roughly by order of increasing complexity.   [FAPs]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		Still in phyletic memory, at diencephalic level, are the complex instinctual sequences,    which are also modifiable by experience and influenced from higher levels.  [FAPs]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		In the basal ganglia and the cerebellum,    we encounter representations of learned and automatic actions,    which at one time may have depended on the cerebral cortex,    but are now relegated to lower levels of sensory-motor integration.   [FAPs]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		At the level of the cerebral cortex,    the representations of sensation (now perception) and of action associated with it    become more complex and more dependent on new plans or recent experience.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		Actions integrated in frontal cortex are less automatic, more subject to deliberation.  These trends increase as we go up the frontal hierarchy, from motor cortex, to premotor cortex, to prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		At high levels of prefrontal cortex,    actions need not be represented in all their complexity.    Only the schema and the goal of a behavioral sequence need to be there in abstract form.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	361		We have a hierarchy of behaviors    of increasing duration and complexity    serving a corresponding hierarchy of purposes.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Supporting the execution of behaviors    is a corresponding hierarchy of neural structures    mutually engaged at various levels in the perception-action cycle.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		At all levels of the perception-action cycle hierarchy,    the same networks that represent the action    engage in its execution.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Feedback signals to the prefrontal cortex may come from the anterior cingulate cortex or from other parts of the prefrontal cortex.    Other feedback inputs may come from the brainstem or the limbic system.  Others may come from posterior cortical networks of perception.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Whether a structure of action    is part of the perception-action cycle or has its origin in the prefrontal cortex, its representational network will successively activate a series of subnetworks    representing the component actions of that structure.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		If processing begins with an action schema in prefrontal cortex,    the activation will progress through premotor cortex and ultimately the primary motor cortex, where the "microgenesis" of the action takes place.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		While the processing of actions generally occurs in a downward and feedforward fashion through the executive hierarchy,    it necessitates the continued feedback from each level to its precursor levels.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Feedback also allows the persistence of traces of sensory information in working memory to guide the action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Spoken language exemplifies the most highly differentiated form of the perception-action cycle.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		For spoken language, two neocortical areas are critical -- Wernike's area and Broca's area.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	362		Higher frontal areas also needed for elaborate language.     In propositional language,    as in mathematical or logical reasoning,    the prefrontal cortex seems to play a pivotal role.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	363		Extending to the temporal domain    the concepts that Gestalt psychology generally applies to the spatial domain.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	363		The behavioral structures    for which prefrontal cortex appears to be so important    consists of novel, usually complex, temporal gestalts.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	363		The biological meaning of any Gestalt,    spatial or temporal,    lies not in its component parts    but in the associative relationships of the parts to each other --    which naturally, in the case of temporal gestalts, include order and timing.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		The most plausible mechanism of working memory is reverberation by reentry.		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Sustained activation of prefrontal cells in working memory    results, at least in part,    from continued reactivation of cortical pyramidal cells through reentrant circuits,    whether those circuits are local    or course through structures outside the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Persistent activation of cortical neurons in working memory    can be explained as a phenomenon of reentry in existing cognitive networks of long-term memory with synaptic weights pre-established by learning.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Set is the other major temporal-integration function of the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Set is conventionally understood as a preparation for action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		In several respects, set is the opposite of working memory.  Whereas the content of working memory is commonly sensory, that of set is motor or action-oriented.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Whereas working memory is attention directed to an internal representation, set is attention directed to a prospective action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	366		Speech,    internal action,    and logical reasoning    all need set, in addition to working memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	367		Working memory and set are the basis of what has been termed cognitive control of the prefrontal cortex.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	368		Language		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	369		Creative Intelligence		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	371		Alternative Models		2
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	376		Consciousness and Free Will		5
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	379		One neuron or group of neurons can be part of many networks, and thus many representations of memory, perception, or action.		3
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	379		One neuron or group of neurons can serve several cognitive functions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	379		Prefrontal cortex of the dorsolateral aspects of the frontal lobe is devoted to the cognitive functions that control the execution of goal-directed actions.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	379		Prefrontal cortex performs its cognitive role in cooperation with orbitomedial and posterior association cortices, the striatatum, and other subcortical structures.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		In the primate, the cerebral cortex of both hemispheres is divided into two major sectors by the central sulcus.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Posterior sector of the cortical hemispheres is dedicated to sensation, perception, and perceptual memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Frontal sector of the cortical hemispheres is dedicated to action and executive memory.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Representational networks or cognits of the two cortical regions, posterior and frontal, are hierarchically organized by development and connectivity.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		The three principal executive functions of the prefrontal cortex are    (1) executive attention,    (2) planning,     (3) decision-making.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Executive attention is the first major executive function of the prefrontal cortex,    and has three aspects or subfunctions --    (1) set,   (2) working memory,    (3) interference control.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Set consist in the selection of particular motor acts and the anticipatory preparation of the sensory and motor systems for them.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Set is based in lateral prefrontal cortex, and operates on its executive networks and through lower executive structures.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Working memory is attention focused on an internal representation for a purposive action in the proximate future.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Working memory is the ad hoc temporary retention of an updated long-term memory for prospective action.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Working memory consists in the sustained temporary activation of an executive cognitive network of the cerebral cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Working memory is active by reverberation through reentrant circuits.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	380		Interference control is the exclusionary or suppressive aspect of executive attention.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Interference control protects behavioral structures from external or internal interference.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Interference control is an inhibitory function based primarily in orbitomedial prefrontal cortex, It exerts its influence on a variety of orbital and subcortical regions, prominently the basal ganglia.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Planning is the second major executive function of the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Prefrontal cortex is essential for the formulation and execution of novel plans or structures (gestalts) of goal directed behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Gestalts of action with their goals are represented in neuronal  networks in the form of abstract schemas.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Simpler components of structures of actions (sub-plans and sub-goals) are represented in frontal or subcortical networks at lower levels of the motor hierarchies.  [FAPs]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Orderly arrangement of fiber connections links the various stages of the motor hierarchies in lateral frontal cortex to support the execution of action plans.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Connectivity in the lateral frontal cortex generally flows downward from prefrontal, to premotor, to motor cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		All stages within each action domain in the lateral frontal cortex are reciprocally connected and, in addition, are connected with each other via subcortical loops through the basal ganglia.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		In the processing of sequential action in the lateral frontal cortex, parallel as well as serial processing takes place within and between action domains.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Decision making is the third major executive function of the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		A deliberate decision to perform an action is a multi-determinate phenomena, a vector of numerous and diverse neural influences that converge on frontal cortex from other brain regions and from the cortex itself.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Foremost among the factors influencing a decision for action are the basic drive and motivations of the organism.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Signals of the basic drive and motivations of the organism arrive in prefrontal cortex via the orbitofrontal cortex, the diencephalon, and limbic formations.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		In making the final decision to perform an act or to undertake a course of action, there is an estimation of the valence of the relevant stimuli and of the costs and benefits of the action to be taken.  [Bayesian inference]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Costs and benefits of the action to be taken most likely involves probabilistic computations conducted in prefrontal cortex based on current inputs and past history.  [Bayesian inference]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Among the signals collected by the prefrontal system are those from the anterior cingulate cortex, which monitors success or failure of past actions.   [Bayesian inference]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	381		Orbitomedial prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in emotional behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Orbital medial cortex, through its efferent fibers to lateral prefrontal cortex, influences cognitive executive functions.		1
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Afferent influences from lateral to orbitomedial cortex exerts a degree of cognitive control over emotional behavior.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Functions of the prefrontal cortex join together synergistically to achieve the temporal organization of action, i.e. the orderly sequencing of actions toward a goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		The supra-ordinate function of temporal organization, consisting of a joint operation of all cognitive and emotional functions of the prefrontal cortex, is of fundamental importance not only to behavior but also in reasoning and language.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		To understand the neural dynamics of temporal organization, the prefrontal cortex and its functions must be viewed within the biological framework of the perception-action cycle.   [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Perception-action cycle is a circular cybernetic flow of information processing between the organism and its environment in a sequence of goal-directed actions.  [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		An action of the organism causes an environmental change  that will be processed by sensory systems, which will produce signals to inform the next action, and so on.  [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Perception-action cycle is of prime importance for the adaptive success of a temporally extended gestalt of behavior, where each action is contingent on the effects of the previous one.  [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Perception-action cycle operates at all levels of the central nervous system.  [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Simple, automatic, and well rehearsed behaviors engage only the lower levels of the perception-action cycle, where, for sensorimotor integration, the cycle runs through the spinal cord and subcortical structures.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Complex, novel, and temporally extended behaviors, engage the neocortex and the connections between the prefrontal and posterior association cortex.  [Bayesian inference]  [Recursion]		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Prefrontal cortex sits at the summit of the perception-action cycle, integrating across time percepts and actions toward a goal.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Language engages the perception action cycle at its highest levels.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		At the highest levels, cross-temporal contingencies are mediated by the reciprocal interactions between frontal cortex, including Broca's area, and posterior association cortex, including Wernike's area.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Working memory plays a key role in the underlying operations of temporal integration.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex	382		Creative intelligence, the ability to construct new forms of action and expression, undergoes enormous expansion in the human as a result of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of the prefrontal cortex.		0
Fuster; Prefrontal Cortex