Hubel:
Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Purkinje cell presents
an extreme in neuronal specialization; dendritic arborization is not bushlike in shape but is flat; through the hole-like spaces in this arborization pass millions
of tiny axons running perpendicular; (2) pyramidal cell, (3) stellate cell (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Signals in a nerve begin at a
point on an axon close to where it joins the cell body; they travel along the
axon away from the cell body finally invading the terminal branches. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Visual pathway (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Prominent neurophysiologists who have researched how neurons
and synapses work -- Andrew Huxley, Alan
Hodgkin, Bernard Katz, John Eccles, and Stephen Kuffler. |
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Many parts of the central
nervous system are organized in successive plate-like stages.(diagram) |
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The initial stages of the mammalian visual system have the plate-like organization often found
in the Central Nervous System. The first three stages are housed in
the retina; the
remainder are in the brain: in the lateral genetic geniculate
bodies and the stages
beyond in the cortex.(diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Each eye has
its position controlled by six separate muscles. |
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Three retinal layers: Light has to pass through the ganglion
cells and bipolar cell
layers before it gets to the rods and cones.(diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Retina; rods, cones, ganglion
cells, bipolar cells, horizontal cells - (diagram) |
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Cross-section
of the retina. (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Retina - (enlarged diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Center-surround receptive fields
- (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Topographic representation in the primary visual cortex. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Optic nerve fibers make synapses with cells in the lateral
geniculate body. Axons of the lateral genetic cells terminate in the primary visual
cortex. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Visual pathway from highest to
primary visual cortex. (Diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Visual Pathway diagram -
(diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Fibers
coming to the brain from each eye pass uninterrupted through the optic chiasm (chi, the Greek letter whose shape is a cross) |
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Lateral geniculate bodies contain only one synaptic stage. They receive fibers
not only from the optic nerves but also back from the cerebral cortex, to which they
project, and from the brainstem reticular
formation, which plays some role in attention and arousal. |
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Some geniculate cells with axons less than a millimeter
long do not leave the
geniculate but synapse
locally on other geniculate cells. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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No one knows why the right
half of the world tends to project to the left half of the cerebral hemispheres. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Hemispheres
of the cerebellum get
input largely from the same, not the opposite, half of the world. |
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Lateral genetic body is composed of six layers of cells stacked one on
the other. Each
layer is made up of cells
piled four to ten or more deep. (photo) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Lateral geniculate body, six
cell layers - (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Primary visual, or striate, cortex is a plate of cells 2 mm thick with a surface area of a few square inches. |
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Compared with the geniculate, which has 1.5 million cells, the striate cortex contains something
like 200 million cells. |
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Flow of information in the
cortex takes place over several loosely defined stages. At the first stage, most cells respond like geniculate cells. Their receptive
fields have circular
symmetry, which means that a line or edge produces
the same response regardless of how it is oriented. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Movement-sensitive cells. |
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In visual
exploration, our eyes
jump around from one point of interest to another;
we cannot explore a stationary scene by swinging our eyes passed it in
continuous movements. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Process of making visual saccades to items of interest, in order to get
their images on the fovea, is carried out largely
by the superior colliculus. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Eyes do not hold perfectly still but make constant tiny movements called microsaccades, which occur several times per second and are
more or less random in direction and about one to two minutes of arc and amplitude. |
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Many structures
in the brainstem that
are primarily visual
have to do only with the eye movements, pupillary constriction, or focusing by means of the lens. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Parts of the brain, such as the
superior colliculus, may play a relatively more important part in a cat's
perception than they do in the primates.
Lower vertebrates, such
as frogs and turtles,
have nothing quite like our cortex. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Primary visual,
or striate, cortex is a far
more complex and elaborate structure than either the lateral
geniculate body or the retina. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Cerebral cortex, which almost entirely covers the
cerebral hemispheres, has the general form of a plate who thickness is about 2 mm and whose surface area in humans is over 1 ft.². |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Primary visual cortex is distinguished by its layered or striped appearance in cross-section, hence his classical name, striate
cortex. |
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Cross-section
through the occipital lobe. (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Cross-section
of the striate cortex taken at higher magnification, cells arranged in layers. (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Layers of the visual cortex -
(diagram) |
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Cortical layers, inputs and outputs (diagram) |
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Richest connections in the
cortex run up and down, intimately
linking the different layers. Diagonal and
side-to-side connections generally run for 1 or 2 mm, although a few travel up
to as much as 4 or 5 mm. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Axon connections between lateral
geniculate body layers and striate cortex - (diagram) |
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Architecture of the cortex |
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Cell types found in the layers
of the striate cortex - (diagram) |
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Ocular dominance columns |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Orientation columns |
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Shift in orientation
preference of neighboring
cells. |
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Maps of the cortex |
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Units of function in the cortex |
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Cortex module -- to mm by 2 mm
piece of cortex. |
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Layers in the retina are far from constant in thickness. Ganglion cell layer near the fovea is many
cell bodies thick,
perhaps eight or 10, whereas far in the periphery, say 70° to 80° out, there are too few ganglion cells to make one layer. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Corpus callosum |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Corpus callosum (diagram) |
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Physiology of the corpus
callosum |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Corpus callosum, both eyes
optics tracts to cortex, chiasm, lateral geniculate, cortex. (Diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Every callosally connected cell
in the visual cortex must get its input from cells in the opposite hemisphere
with exactly matching properties. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Stereopsis
-- judging depth by comparing images on our two retinas. |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Color vision |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Retinal receptors form a mosaic consisting of rods and the three types of cones; red, blue, green. (diagram) |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Theories of color vision |
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Color blindness |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Deprivation and development |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Visual development |
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Hubel: Eye, Brain, and Vision |
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Amblyopia --
nonparallel eyes,
cross eye or walleye. |
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