| Kandel, et.al.; Principles of Neural Science | |||||
| Book | Page | Topic | |||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 5 | Brain and behavior | |||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 12 | Brodmann's areas (diagram) | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 19 | Nerve cells and behavior | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 23 | Branches of a single axon may form synapses with as many as 1000 other neurons. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 36 | Genes and behavior | 13 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 67 | Cytology of neurons | 31 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 88 | Synthesis and trafficking of neuronal protein | 21 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 105 | Ion channels | 17 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 125 | Membrane potential | 20 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 140 | Local signaling: Passive electrical properties of the Neuron | 15 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 150 | Propagated signaling: Action Potential | 10 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 175 | Overview of Synaptic Transmission | 25 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 187 | Signaling at the nerve muscle synapse: Directly-Gated Transmission | 12 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | Synaptic Integration | 20 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | Muscle fibers receive only excitatory, while central neurons receive both excitatory and inhibitory inputs. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | All semantic actions on muscle fibers are mediated by one neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (Ach) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | In the central nervous system the inputs to a single cell are mediated by variety of transmitters that alter the activity of a variety of ion channels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | CNS neuron ion channels include many that are directly gated by transmitters, but others that are gated indirectly by metabotropic receptors and the second messengers they activate. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | CNS neurons must integrate diverse inputs into one coordinated response. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | Nerve muscle synapse -- every action potential in the motor neuron produces an action potential in the muscle fiber. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | Presynaptic neuron connections require that perhaps 50--100 excitatory neurons fire together to produce a synaptic potential large enough to trigger an action potential. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 207 | John Eccles and his colleagues in the 1950s, synaptic mechanisms of the spinal motor neurons that control the stretch reflex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 209 | Effect of a presynaptic neuron -- whether it is excitatory or inhibitory -- is determined not by the type of neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron, but by the type of ion channels gated by the neurotransmitter in the postsynaptic cell. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 209 | Vertebrate brain neurons that release glutamate typically act on receptors that produce excitation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 209 | Neurons that release GABA or glycine act on ionotropic inhibitory receptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 212 | Membrane potential of the axon hillock (integrateive component of neurons) to the threshold for generation of an action potential. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 213 | Blockade of the NMDA receptors produces symptoms that resemble the hallucinations associated with schizophrenia. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 213 | Presynaptic neuron fires repeatedly. This activation of the NMDA receptor leads to the activation of calcium dependent enzymes and certain second messenger-dependent protein kinases in the postsynaptic cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 213 | NMDA receptor biochemical reactions are important for triggering signal transduction pathways that contribute to certain long-lasting modifications in the synapse that are important for learning and memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 213 | Because NMDA receptors require a significant level of presynaptic activity before they can function maximally, long-term synaptic modifications mediated by the NMDA receptor is often referred to as activity-dependent synaptic modification. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 213 | Excessive amounts of glutamate are highly toxic to neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 214 | Glutamate excitotoxicity. Free radicals that are toxic to the cell. Glutamate toxicity may contribute to cell damage after stroke. Episodes of rapidly repeated seizures. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 214 | GABA is a major inhibitory transmitter in the brain and spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 214 | GABA acts on two receptors, GABAA and GABAB. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 214 | GABAA receptor is an ionotropic receptor that gates a Cl- channel. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 214 | GABAB receptor is a metabotropic receptor that activates a second messenger cascade, which often activates a K+ channel. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | GABA and glycine receptors are structurally related to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These receptors are thought to be members of one large genetic family. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Glutamate receptors appear to have evolved from a different class of proteins and represent a second genetic family of ligand gated channels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Each subunit of the GABA and glycine receptor channels contains a large extracellular domain at it's amino terminus that contains the ligand binding site. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Two molecules of GABA and up to three molecules of glysine are required to activate their respective channels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Extracellular ligand-binding domain of the subunits is followed by a four hydrophobic transmembrane domains. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | The second transmembrane domain is thought to form the lining of the channel pore. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | GABA-gated channel is the target for three types of drugs that are clinically important and socially abused: the benzodiazepines, barbituates, and alcohol. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Benzodiazepines -- anti-anxiety agents and muscle relaxants that include Valium. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Barbiturates comprise a group of hypnotics that includes phenobarbital. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 219 | Four classes of compounds -- GABA, benzodiazepine, barbituates, and alcohol -- act at different sites to increase the opening of the channel and hence enhance inhibitory synaptic transmission. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 221 | Most neurotransmitter-gated channels are normally clustered at postsynaptic sites in the membrane, opposed to presynaptic terminals. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Each neuron in the central nervous system, whether in the spinal cord or in the brain, is constantly bombarded by synaptic input from other neurons. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | A neuron may be innervated by as many as 10,000 different synaptic endings. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Some inputs contact a neuron at the extremities of its apical dendrites, others at its proximal dendrites, or on a dendritic shaft, or on dendritic spines. The different inputs can reinforce or cancel one another. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Inputs to a neuron do not sum linearly. Postsynaptic neuron's competing inputs are combined via neuronal integration. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Decision to initiate an action potential is made at the initial segment of the axon, the axon hillock. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Axon hillock region of cell membrane has a lower threshold for action potentials than the cell body or dendrites because it has a higher density of voltage-dependent Na+ channels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Membrane potential of the axon hillock serves as the readout for the integrative action of a neuron. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Because neuronal integration involves a summation of synaptic potentials that spread passively to the trigger zone, it is critically affected by two passive membrane properties of the axon -- temporal summation; spatial summation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Time constant determines the time course of synaptic potential. Consecutive synaptic potentials are added together in a postsynaptic cell. Neurons with a large time constant have a greater capacity for temporal summation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 222 | Length constant of a cell determines the degree to which a depolarizing current decreases as its spreads passively. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 223 | Voltage-gated channels in dendritic membrane can amplify weak excitatory input that arrives at remote parts of the dendrite. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 224 | Dendrites are complex integrative compartments in nerve cells that can exert powerful orthograde effects on the propagation of synaptic potentials to the cell body as well is powerful retrograde effects on the relay of activity-dependent information from the cell body and axon hillock back to the dendritic synapses. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 229 | Modulation of Synaptic Transmission: Second Messengers | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 229 | Metabotropic receptors -- receptor and effector functions of gating are carried out by separate molecules. This receptor type consists of two families: (1) G protein-coupled kinase receptors and (2) receptor tyrosine kinases. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 229 | In G protein-coupled receptors, the effector is typically an enzyme that produces a diffusible second messenger. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 229 | Second messengers trigger a biochemical cascade, either by activating specific protein kinases that phosphorylate a variety of the cell's proteins or by mobilizing calcium ions from intracellular stores. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | Receptor tyrosine kinases are typically activated by hormones, growth factors, and neuropeptides. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | The number of substances known to act as second messengers in synaptic transmission is far fewer than the number of transmitters. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | Approximately 100 substances function as neurotransmitters, each of which can activate several different receptors on the cell surface. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | (1) gaseous and (2) nongaseous second messengers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | The best understood nongaseous second messenger is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | Intracellular calcium can also serve as a second messenger. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 230 | Gaseous second messengers are highly diffusible. Two best studied are nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 231 | Activated G protein binds to an effector enzyme. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 231 | Phosphorylation mediated by protein kinases is central to understanding the action of second-messenger pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 231 | A single protein kinase can phosphorylate many different target proteins. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 231 | cAMP pathway is the prototype of an intracellular signaling pathway that makes use of a water-soluble second-messenger that diffuses within the cytoplasm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 232 | Integral membrane protein that spans the plasma membrane 12 times. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 234 | G proteins are not integral component of the membrane. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 234 | G proteins consist of three subunits: a, b, and g. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 234 | A single ligand receptor can activate many G proteins, thus amplifying a small synaptic signal into many activated cyclase complexes, thereby producing an effective concentration of cAMP within the cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 236 | Calcium often acts when it forms a complex with the small protein calmodulin. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 236 | cAMP-dependent protein kinase, or PKA, can become active in the absence of a second messenger, due to the action of proteases that degrade the regulatory regions of the enzymes. Constitutively active kinases are thought to be important for triggering long-term changes in synaptic plasticity associated with certain forms of learning and memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 238 | Receptor tyrosine kinases bind various peptides including nerve growth factor (NGF), and insulin. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 238 | Substrates for tyrosine kinase often produce long-term changes in neuronal function. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 240 | All of these second messenger enzymes are believed to be related to an ancestral enzyme. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 240 | Purkinje cells of the cerebellum have long term depression of synaptic transmission (LTD), a form of synaptic plasticity that may underlie certain forms of motor learning. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 240 | Direct gating of ion channels through the ionotropic receptors is usually rapid -- on the order of milliseconds -- because it involves a change in the conformation of only a single macromolecule. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 240 | Indirect gating of ion channels through metabotropic receptors is slower in onset (tens of milliseconds to seconds) and longer lasting (seconds to minutes) because it involves a cascade of reactions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 240 | Ligand gated channels function as simple on-off switches. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 250 | Transmitter gated channels produce the fastest and briefest type of synaptic action, lasting only a few milliseconds, on average. | 10 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 250 | Fast synaptic transmission mediates most motor actions and perceptual processing. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Longer-lasting effects of transmitters are mediated by activation of the G protein-coupled receptors and the receptor tyrosine kinases. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Prominent second messengers include cyclic AMP. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Many second messenger actions depend on activation of protein kinases, leading to phosphorylation of a variety of cellular proteins, including ion channels, which changes their functional state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Second messenger actions generally last from seconds to minutes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Second messenger actions do not mediate rapid behaviors but rather serve to modulate the strength and efficacy of fast synaptic transmission -- by modulating: (1) transmitter release, (2) sensitivity of ionotropic receptors, or (3) electrical excitability of the postsynaptic cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Second messenger actions are implicated in emotional states, mood, arousal, and certain forms of learning and memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Longest lasting changes in synaptic transmission involve changes in gene transcription, changes that can persist for days or weeks. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | The more permanent synaptic changes are thought to involve many of the same types of receptors and second messenger pathways involved in the shorter term modulatory actions. However, they may require repeated stimulation and more prolonged action of the second messengers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 251 | Synaptically induced activation of gene expression is critical for the storage of long-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 253 | Transmitter Release | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 255 | Transmitter release is triggered by calcium influx. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 258 | Transmitter is released in quantal units. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 258 | Although release of synaptic transmitter appears smoothly graded, it is actually released in discrete packages called quanta. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 262 | Each vesicle stores one quantum of transmitter, amounting to several thousand molecules. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 264 | To catch vesicles in the act of exocytosis, quick freeze the tissue with liquid helium. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 267 | Synaptic vesicles are recycled. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 267 | Vesicle membrane is a rapidly recycled. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | Amount of transmitter release can be modulated by regulating the amount of calcium influx during the action potential. | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | Transmitter release depends strongly on the intracellular Ca2+ concentration. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | A slight depolarization of the membrane can increase the steady-state influx of Ca2+ and thus enhance the amount of neurotransmitter released by subsequent action potentials. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | Synaptic effectiveness can be altered in most nerve cells by intense activity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | High-frequency stimulation of the presynaptic neuron can generate 500-1000 action potential's per second. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 274 | Postsynaptic potentiation usually lasts several minutes, but can persist for an hour or more. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 275 | Presynaptic cell stores information about the history of its activity in the form of residual Ca2+ in its terminals | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 275 | Storage of biochemical information in the nerve cell after a brief period of activity, leads to a strengthening of the presynaptic connection that persist for many minutes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 275 | Long-term potentiation (LTP) can last for many hours or even days. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 277 | Neurotransmitter is packaged in the vesicles, each containing approximately 5000 transmitter molecules. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 277 | Synaptic potentials evoked by nerve stimulation are composed of integral multiples of quantal potential. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 277 | Increasing the extracellular calcium does not change the size of the quantal synaptic potential. Rather, it increases the probability that a vesicle discharges its transmitter. As a result, there is an increase in the number of vesicles released. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 277 | High-frequency stimulation produces an increase in transmitter release call posttetanic potentiation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 277 | Posttetanic potentiation lasts a few minutes and is caused by Ca2+ left in the terminal after the large Ca2+ influx that occurs during a train of action potentials. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 280 | Neurotransmitters | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 280 | Bernard Katz in the 1950s -- transmitters are stored in vesicles at synapses and released by exocytosis. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 281 | Nervous system make use of two main classes of chemical substances for signaling -- small molecule transmitters and neuroactive peptides. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 281 | Small molecule transmitters are packaged in small vesicles, which release their contents through exocytosis at active zones closely associated with specific Ca2+ channels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 281 | Small synaptic vesicles are characteristic of neurons that use acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA, and glysine as transmitters. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 281 | Large dense core vesicles are typical of catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 282 | Catecholamine transmitters -- dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine -- are all synthesized from the essential amino acid tyrosine. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 283 | Synthesis of biogenic amines is highly regulated. As a result, the amounts of transmitter available for release can keep up with wide variations in neuronal activity. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 283 | Serotonergic neurons are found in and around the midline raphe nuclei of the brainstem, which are involved in regulating attention and other complex cognitive functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 283 | Serotonin is implicated in depression, a major disorder of mood. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 284 | Glutamate is a neurotransmitter most frequently used throughout the central nervous system. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 285 | Glutamate and other neurotransmitters are taken up from the synaptic cleft by both neurons and glia. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 285 | Glutamate is excitatory at ionotropic receptors and modulatory at metabotropic receptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 285 | In the brain, GABA is the major transmitter in various inhibitory interneurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 285 | GABA is inhibitory at the neuromuscular junction of the lobster (and of other crustacea and insects), and glutamate is excitatory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 285 | Transmitter glutamate is compartmentalized in synaptic vesicles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | Many neuroactive peptides serve as transmitters. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | Small molecule transmitter substances can be formed in all parts of the neuron. They can be synthesized at the nerve terminals where they are released. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | In contrast, neuroactive peptides are derived from secretory proteins that are formed in the cell body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | Like other secretory proteins, neuroactive peptides or their precursors are first processed in the endoplasmic reticulum, and then move to the Golgi apparatus to be processed further. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | Neuroactive peptides leave the Golgi apparatus within secretory granules and move to terminals by fast axonal transport. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | More than 50 short peptides are pharmacologically active in nerve cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | Hormones in some tissues also act as transmitters when released close to the site of intended action. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 286 | The diversity of neuroactive peptides is enormous. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 289 | Relatedness between the seven main families of peptides is made by comparing either the amino acid sequences of the peptides or the nucleotide base sequences in the genes that encode them. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Timely removal of transmitters from the synaptic cleft is critical to synaptic transmission. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Transmitters are removed from the cleft by three mechanisms -- diffusion, enzymatic degradation, and reuptake. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Diffusion removes some fraction of all chemical messengers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Enzymatic degradation of transmitter is used primarily by cholinergic synapses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Neuroactive peptides are removed more slowly than small molecule transmitters from the synaptic cleft. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | The slow removal of neuropeptides contributes to the long duration of their effects. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | Reuptake of transmitter substance is the most common mechanism for inactivation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 294 | High affinity uptake, with binding constants of 25 µM or less for the released transmitter, is mediated by transport of molecules in the membranes of nerve terminals and glial cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | Cocaine blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | Tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac block the reuptake of serotonin. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | The 12 membrane spanning group of transporter molecules includes several transporters for each transmitter; for example, there are at least four for GABA. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | All members of the membrane transporter molecules are related, stemming from ancestor protein that gives rise to bacterial permeases. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | Concentration of transmitter is much higher in the terminal than in the synaptic cleft, typically by four orders of magnitude. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | The electrochemical potential of the membrane transporter molecules is sufficient to take up the dilute transmitter into the cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | Several membrane soluble molecules diffuse through the neuronal membrane and are released without being packaged in vesicles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | The most prominent of the membrane-diffusing molecules is the gas nitric oxide (NO). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | The membrane soluble molecules may act as retrograde messengers at some synapses, carring information from the postsynaptic neurons in the presynaptic cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | None of the chemical messages carries unique information, as RNA and DNA do. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 295 | Transmittal molecules become signals when they bind to receptor proteins in the membrane of another cell, causing the receptor proteins to change shape. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 296 | Two major classes of chemical messengers -- small molecule transmitters and neuroactive peptides. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 296 | Nerve endings contain a high concentration of synaptic vesicles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 296 | Small molecule transmitter in a neuron must be synthesized at the terminal. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 296 | Protein precursors of neuroactive peptides are synthesized only in the cell body, then become packaged in secretory granules and synaptic vesicles that are transported from the cell body to the terminals. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 298 | Myasthenia Gravis | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 313 | Neural science, the modern science of the brain, emerged in the mid-1970s. | 15 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 313 | Cognitive neuroscience is a pragmatic attempt to merge neural science with psychology. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 317 | Anatomical organization of the Central Nervous System. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Behavior is shaped in response to stimuli in our environment. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Topographically organized neural map of the receptive circuits in the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Parallel processing of sensory information. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Perceptions generated by the sensory systems recruit the amygdala, which colors perception with emotion, and the hippocampus, which stores aspects of perception in long-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Central nervous system consists of the spinal cord and brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Six major brain divisions: medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebral hemispheres or telencephalon. Each of these divisions is found in both hemispheres. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Spinal cord is divided into gray matter and surrounding white matter. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Gray matter of the spinal cord, which contains nerve cell bodies, is typically divided into dorsal and ventral horns. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Dorsal horn contains an orderly arrangement of sensory relay neurons that receive input from the periphery, while the ventral horn contains motor neurons that innervate specific muscles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Spinal cord white matter is made up of longitudinal tracts of myelinated axons that form ascending pathways through which sensory information reaches the brain and desending pathways that carry motor commands and modulatory influences from the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 319 | Nerve fibers that link the spinal cord with the muscles and sensory receptors in the skin are bundled in 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each of which has a sensory division that emerges from the dorsal root and a motor division that emerges from the ventral root. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 320 | Different classes of axons in the dorsal roots mediate sensations of pain, temperature, and touch. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Pons lies rostral to the medulla and protrudes from the ventral surface of the brain stem. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Substantia nigra, a distinct nucleus of the midbrain, provides dopaminergic input to a portion of the basal ganglia that regulates voluntary movements. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Cerebellum, which lies over the pons, contains a far greater number of neurons than any other single subdivision of the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Cerebellum contains relatively few neuronal types, and its circuitry is well understood. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Cerebellum is important for maintaining posture and for coordinating head and eye movements, and is also involved in fine tuning the movements of muscles and in learning motor skills. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 322 | Cerebellum is also involved in language and other cognitive functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 324 | In most brain systems information processing is organized hierarchically. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Insular cortex -- some structures of the cerebral hemispheres cannot be seen from the surface of the brain. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Cerebral cortex is divided into four major lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Temporal lobe has distinct regions that carry out auditory, visual, and memory functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Cingulate cortex surrounds the dorsal surface of the corpus callosum. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Overhanging portion of the cerebral cortex that buries the insular within the lateral sulcus is called the operculum. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Lateral sulcus or Sylvian fissure separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Insular cortex forms the medial limit of a lateral sulcus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Central sulcus runs medially and laterally on the dorsal surface of the hemisphere and separates the frontal and parietal lobes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | "Limbic lobe" -- portions of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes encircle and border the fluid filled ventricles of the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 325 | Cingulate cortex, which surrounds the corpus callosum, is considered a separate division of the neocortex, much like the insular cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 326 | Primary motor cortex mediates voluntary movements of the limbs and trunk. It is called primary because it contains neurons that project directly to the spinal cord. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 326 | Primary sensory areas receive most of their information directly from the thalamus; only a few synaptic relays are interposed between the thalamus and the peripheral receptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 326 | Primary somatosensory cortex is located caudal to the central sulcus, on the post-central gyrus, in the parietal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 326 | Primary motor cortex, located just rostral to the central sulcus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 326 | Primary motor cortex is the final site in the cortex for processing motor commands. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | The most typical form of neocortex contains six layers. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 1 -- an acellular layer. Occupied by dendrites of cells located deeper in the cortex, and axons that travel through to form connections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 2 -- comprised mainly of small spherical cells called granule cells, and is called the external granule cell layer. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 3 -- contains a variety of cell types, many of which are pyramidally shaped. Layer 3 is called the external pyramidal cell layer. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 4 -- like layer 2, is made up primarily of granule cells and is called the internal granule cell layer. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 5 -- internal pyramidal cell layer, contains mainly pyramidal cells that are typically larger than those in layer 3. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | layer 6 -- a fairly heterogeneous layer of neurons. Blends into the white matter. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layers 1-3 contain apical dendrites of neurons that have their cell bodies in layers 5 and 6. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layers 5 and 6 contain the basal dendrites of neurons with cell bodies and layers 3 and 4. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Profile of inputs to a particular cortical neuron depends more on the distribution of his dendrites than on the location of the cell body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Layer 4 is the main target of sensory information arriving from the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | In a highly visual animals, such as humans, the lateral geniculate nucleus provides a large and highly organized input to layer 4 of the primary visual cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 327 | Association or feed-forward connections originate mainly from cells in layer 3 and terminate mainly in layer 4. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 328 | Brodmann's areas (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Feedback projections from later to earliest stages of processing, originate from cells in layers 5 and 6 and terminate in layers 1, 2 and 6. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Local interneurons use the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, constitute 20-25% of the neurons in the neocortex, and are located in all layers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Basket cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Chandelier cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Excitatory interneurons, located primarily in layer 4, are the primary recipients of sensory information received in the neocortex from the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 329 | Neurons in the neocortex have a columnar organization. A cortical column would fit within a cylinder a fraction of a millimeter in diameter. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Neurons within a particular column tend to have very similar response properties, presumably because they form a local processing network. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Columns are thought to be the fundamental computational modules of the neocortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Thickness of the neocortex is always between 2 and 4 mm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | What differentiates the cerebral cortex of a human from that of a rat is not the thickness of the cortex or the organization of the cortical columns, but the total number of columns. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Massive expansion of the surface area of the cerebral cortex in humans accommodates many more columns and thus provide greater computational power. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Ability of the cerebral cortex to process sensory information, to associate it with emotional states, to store it as memory, and to initiate action, is modulated by three structures that lie deep within the cerebral hemispheres: (1) basal ganglia, (2) hippocampal formation, (3) amygdala. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Major components of the basal ganglia are: (1) caudate nucleus, (2) putamen, (3) globus pallidus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Neurons in the basal ganglia regulate movement and contribute to certain forms of cognition such as the learning of skills. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Basal ganglia receive inputs from all parts of the cerebral cortex but send their output only to the frontal lobe through the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Hippocampus and associated cortical regions form the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Damage to the hippocampus causes people to become unable to form new memories, but does not significantly impair old memories. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Amygdala, which lies just rostral to the hippocampus, is involved in analyzing the emotional or motivational significance of sensory stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Amygdala receives input directly from the major sensory systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Through its projections to the brainstem, the amygdala can modulate somatic and visceral components of the peripheral nervous system and thus orchestrate the body's response to a particular situation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Responses to danger -- the sense of fear and change in heart rate and respiration that result from seeing a snake -- are mediated by the amygdala and its connections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Neuronal cell bodies are grouped in clusters of different sizes and shapes called nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 331 | Most nuclei are not homogeneous populations of cells, but instead include a variety of cells organized into subnuclei, divisions, or layers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 332 | Insular cortex, shown in several coronal sections (diagram) | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 332 | Reticular formation, a region of the brain stem so named because of its diffuse and relatively nonnuclear appearance. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 333 | In situ hybridization allows neurons to be visualized based on the genes they express. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 333 | Types of neurons within a particular brain nucleus and the connections that they make are the end result of a stereotypical developmental program of cellular proliferation, migration, and differentiation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 334 | Small groups of noradrenaline and serotonin modulatory neurons in the brain stem set the general arousal level of an animal through their influences on forebrain structures. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 334 | Physiological satisfaction an animal experiences in consuming food reinforces behaviors that led to successful predation. Modulatory systems of the dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain mediate these rewarding aspects of behavior. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 334 | How the brain's modulatory systems concerned with the reward, attention, and motivation interacts with the sensory and motor systems remains one of the most interesting questions in neuroscience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Parasympathetic system acts to conserve body resources and restore homeostasis. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Human nervous system is comprised of several hundreds of billions of neurons, each of which receives and gives rise to tens of thousands of connections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Some nerve connections are located nearly a meter from the cell bodies of origin. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system composed of specialized classes of neurons (ganglia) and peripheral nerves. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Electron microscope methods of neural anatomy in the 1950s revealed the structure of synapses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Some synaptic terminals are located on dendrites, others on axon terminals, and still others on soma of the postsynaptic cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 335 | Location of synapses on the neuronal surface critically affects the function of the cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 337 | Functional organization of Perception and Movement | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 338 | Major anatomical features of the spinal cord. Ventral horn and carries large motor neurons. Dorsal horn carries somatosensory information from the lower limbs. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Submodalities of somatic sensation -- touch, pain, and positions sense -- are processed in the brain through different pathways that end in different brain regions. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Thalamus is an oval shaped structure that constitutes the dorsal portion of the diencephalon. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | As many as 50 thalamic nuclei have been identified. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Axons of cells in the ventual posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus project to the primary somatosensory cortex in the post-central gyrus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Some axons in the thalamus participate in motor functions, transmitting information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia to the motor regions of the frontal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Axons from cells in the thalamus that project to the neocortex travel in the internal capsule, a large fiber bundle that carries most of the axons running to and from the cerebral hemisphere. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Through its connections with the frontal lobe, the thalamus may play a role in cognitive functions such as memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Some thalamic nuclei that may play a role in attention project diffusely to large but distinctly different regions of cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Reticular nucleus, which forms the outer shell of the thalamus, does not project to the neocortex at all. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Reticular nucleus receives inputs from other fibers as they exit the thalamus en route to the neocortex and in turn projects to the other thalamic nuclei, thus providing feedback to the output nuclei of the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Groups of neurons are located within the fibers of the internal medullary lamina and are collectively referred to as the intralamina nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Ventral anterior and ventral lateral nuclei of the thalamus are important for motor control and carry information from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the motor cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 341 | Medial geniculate nucleus is a component of the auditory system and conveys tonotopically organized auditory information to the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 343 | Pulvinar is extensively interconnected with widespread regions of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, as well as with the superior colliculus and other nuclei of the brainstem related to vision. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 343 | Thalamus not only projects to the visual areas of the neocortex but also receives a return projection from the neocortex. The return projection from the occipital cortex accounts for a greater number of synapses in the lateral geniculate nucleus than does the retinal input! | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 343 | Most nuclei of the thalamus receive a prominent return projection from the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 343 | Intralamina nuclei of the thalamus project to limbic structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus, but also send projections to components of the basal ganglia. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 343 | Reticular nucleus -- outer covering of the thalamus formed by a sheet-like structure. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 344 | Most of the neurons of the reticular nucleus use the inhibitory transmitter GABA, whereas most other thalamic neurons utilize the excitatory transmitter glutamate. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 344 | Reticular nucleus modulates activity of other thalamic nuclei based on its monitoring of the entirety of the thalamocortical stream of information. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 344 | Thalamus is not a relay station where information is simply passed on to the neocortex. Rather, it is a complex brain region where substantial information processing is possible. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 344 | An example; output of somatosensory information from the ventral posterior lateral nucleus is subject to four types of processing: (1) local processing within the nucleus; (2) modulation by brain stem inputs, such as the noradrenergic and serotonergic monoamine systems; (3) inhibitory feedback from the reticular nucleus; and (4) excitatory feedback from the neocortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 344 | All portions of the body are represented in the cortex somatotopically, but not in proportion to body mass. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 345 | Somatosensory cortex contains not one but several topographically organized sets of inputs from the skin and therefore several somatotopic maps of the body surface. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 345 | Primary somatosensory cortex has four complete maps of the skin, one each in areas 3a, 3b, 1, and 2. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 345 | At higher levels of the hierarchy, somatosensory information is used in motor control, eye-hand coordination, and memory related to tactical experience and touch. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 345 | Close linkage between the somatosensory and motor functions of the cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | Voluntary Movement Diagram (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | A major function of the perceptual systems is to provide sensory information necessary for the actions mediated by the motor systems of the brain and spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | Primary motor cortex is organized somatotopically like the somatic sensory cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | Human corticospinal track consists of about one million axons, of which about 40% originate in the motor cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | Pyramidal tract -- medullary pyramids, prominent protuberances on the ventral surface of the medulla. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 347 | Corticospinal tract makes monosynaptic connections with motor neurons, connections that are particularly important for individual finger movements. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | Indirect connections are important for coordinating larger groups of muscles and behaviors such as reaching and walking. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | Major influence of the cerebellum on movement is through its connections to the ventral nuclear group of the thalamus, which connects directly to the motor cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | Fibers of the basal ganglia and cerebellum terminate in distinctly different portions of the ventral nuclear complex and influence different portions of both the somatosensory and motor regions of the cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | Sensations of touch and pain are mediated by different pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | All sensory and motor systems follow the pattern of hierarchical and parallel processing. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 348 | Brain constructs an internal representation of external physical events after first analyzing various features of those events. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | Integration of Sensory and Motor function: Association areas of the cerebral cortex; Cognitive capabilities of the brain | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | All mental functions are localizable to specific areas of the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | Complex mental functions require integration of information from several cortical areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | Cortex is organized hierarchically. Some cortical areas serve higher order integrative functions that are neither purely sensory nor purely motor, but associative. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | Association areas perform mental processes that intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 349 | Association area mental processes include: interpretation of sensory information, association of perceptions with previous experience, focusing of attention, and exploration of the environment. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 350 | Each primary sensory cortex projects to nearby higher-order areas of sensory cortex that integrate afferent information for a single sensory modality. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 350 | Unimodal association areas project to multimodal sensory association areas that integrate information about more than one sensory modality. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 350 | Multimodal sensory association areas project to multimodal motor association areas located rostral to the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 350 | Primary motor areas are the final sites for the cortical processing of motor commands. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 350 | Multimodal association areas are the anatomical substrates of the highest brain functions -- conscious thought, perception, and goal-directed action. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 353 | Frontal lobes play a critical role in long-term planning and judgment. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 353 | Hierarchical model of information processing in the cerebral cortex -- sensory information is first received and interpreted by the primary sensory areas, then sent to the unimodal association areas, and finally to the multimodal sensory areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 353 | Object and pattern recognition in the inferotemporal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 353 | Posterior association areas that process sensory information are highly interconnected with the frontal association areas responsible for planning and motor actions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 354 | Visual, auditory, or somatic information converge in multimodal association areas in the prefrontal, parietotemporal, and limbic cortices. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 354 | Multimodal sensory association cortex in the inferior parietal lobule is concerned with directing visual attention to objects in the contralateral visual field. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 354 | Position of a stimulus in the world as well as its relationship to the individual's personal space. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 354 | Personal space may be within arm's reach. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 354 | Extrapersonal space if it is across the room. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Cingulate cortex -- limbic association area. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Superior temporal lobe (Wernicke's area) -- meaning of spoken words is analyzed, extracting language information from the ongoing sensory strain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Posterior association areas are heavily interconnected with the association cortex of the frontal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Motor planning begins with a general outline of behavior and is translated into concrete motor responses through processing in the motor pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Primary motor cortex occupies the precentral gyrus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Premotor cortex is a set of interconnected areas in the frontal lobe just rostral to the motor cortex. Premotor cortex includes areas 6 and 8 and the supplementary motor cortex on the medial surface of the hemisphere. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Lesions of the primary motor cortex produce complete absence of voluntary movement, although some postural and stereotyped involuntary movements may persist. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 355 | Premotor cortex receives inputs mainly from three sources: (1) motor nuclei in the ventroanterior and ventrolateral thalamus (which receive input from the basal ganglia and the cerebellum); (2) primary somatosensory cortex and parietal association cortex (which provide information about the ongoing motor response); (3) prefrontal association cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 356 | Prefrontal cortex has three main regions: (1) lateral prefrontal cortex, (2) medial prefrontal cortex, and (3) orbitofrontal cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 356 | Orbitofrontal cortex and medial prefrontal cortex are related to the limbic association cortex and connect directly to limbic structures such as the amygdala and cingulate cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 356 | To select appropriate motor responses, frontal association areas must integrate sensory information from both the outside world and the body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 356 | Prefrontal association area is specifically concerned with the sequencing of behaviors over time. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 356 | Prefrontal association area is engaged in tasks that require a delay between a stimulus and a behavioral response or that depend heavily upon recent experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 357 | The idea of working memory was introduced in 1974 by the cognitive psychologist Alan Baddeley. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 357 | Working memory has three distinct components: one for verbal memories; a parallel component for visual memories; and a third component that functions as a central executive. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 359 | Brain's analysis of a visual scene is carried out in two major parallel pathways; (1) a ventral pathway through the inferior temporal lobe that processes information about color and shape of objects (what the visual image is about) and (2) a dorsal pathway through the posterior parietal cortex that processes information about the location of objects (where the visual image is located). | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 361 | Prefrontal area of humans and other animals has a particularly prominent dopaminergic innervation. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 362 | Disturbances of the dopaminergic system are thought to contribute to the symptoms of schizophrenia. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 362 | Cognitive deficits and schizophrenia may involve difficulty in appropriately activating prefrontal areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 362 | Dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex and parietal association cortex are among the most densely interconnected regions of association cortex, and both project to numerous common cortical and subcortical structures. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 363 | Patients with damage to Wernicke's area will be unaware of the symbolic content of language. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 363 | Split-brain patients -- surgically sectioned corpus callosum and anterior commissure to control chronic epileptic seizures. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 363 | Split-brain patients seem to have two independent conscious selves. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 363 | A broad range of cognitive functions are mediated by the right hemisphere alone. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 365 | Even the most complex functions of the brain are localized to specific combinations of regions. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 365 | Whether function is a localized or an ensemble property of the nervous system appears to be a dialectical issue. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 365 | No part of the nervous system functions in the same way alone as it does in concert with other parts. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 366 | Primary sensory input and final motor output are conveyed in pathways that are topographically organized so as to constitute topographic maps of both the receptor surface and the muscles for movement. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 366 | Resolution of routine MRI is about 1 mm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 366 | MRI field strengths of 4 Tesla provide images with resolution of less than 1 mm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 367 | MRI scan midsagittal section with interpretive illustration (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 368 | MRI scan horizontal section with interpretive illustration (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 369 | MRI scan coronal section with interpretive illustration (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 370 | Magnetic resonance imaging | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 374 | Functional MRI (fMRI) makes use of blood oxygen level detection (BOLD), an index of brain activity composed of several variables. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 374 | BOLD is a sensitive method for measuring cerebral cortical activity that has considerably greater spatial resolution than PET scanning. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 375 | Positron emission tomography (PET) is a sensitive method of imaging based on the detection of a trace amounts of radioactive isotopes. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 375 | PET method is limited to a few research centers because the short-lived radioisotopes must be generated locally in a cyclotron. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 376 | Positron emission tomography | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 379 | Because MRI images are sharp, PET and other functional techniques often done concomitantly with MRI to take advantage of MRI's ability to locate within the brain the site of the isotope signal detected by a PET scanning. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 379 | Functional imaging techniques can be used for studies of normal subjects involving cognitive processes such as attention, perception, memory, or language. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 381 | Nerve cells to cognition: Internal cellular representation required for Perception and Action | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 382 | Behaviorism's most influential period, the 1950s. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 383 | Early cognitive psychologists, building on the evidence from the Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, and European neurology. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 383 | Cognitive approach to behavior assumes that each perceptual or motor act has an internal representation in the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 383 | An internal representation for a perceptual or motor act must have the form of a distinctive pattern of neural activity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 383 | Mechanisms of perception are much the same in humans and monkeys. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Visual system, a prototype of a cognitive system concerned with sensory perception, has specialized pathways for processing information about color, form, and movement. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Radiological imaging techniques -- positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetoencephalopathy, and voltage-sensitive dyes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Network properties may not be identical or even similar to the properties of individual cells in the network. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Personal space, the neural representation of the body surface. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Peripersonal space, the space within arms reach. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Extrapersonal space, the larger environment around the body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 384 | Representations of spatial relations and the association cortex of the posterior parietal lobe give rise to imagined and remembered space. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 385 | In the cortical representation of space surrounding the body, the representation is not topographical but dynamic. Representation is encoded into firing patterns of the cells that may not have any specific tomographic relation. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 387 | Human somatosensory cortex was mapped by the neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield during operations for epilepsy. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 387 | Somatic sensory and motor projection distortions in the cortex reflect differences in innervation density in the different areas of the body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 387 | Four fairly complete maps in the primary somatosensory cortex, one each in Brodmann areas 3a, 3b, 1 and 2. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 388 | Clinical neurology has long been an accurate diagnostic discipline, even though for many decades it relied on only the simplest tools -- a wad of cotton, a safety pin, a tuning fork, and a reflex hammer. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 389 | Magnetoencephalography can now be used to construct functional maps of the hand in normal subjects with a precision of millimeters. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 392 | Primary somatosensory cortex projects to higher somatosensory areas of the anterior parietal lobe and to the multimodal association areas in the posterior parietal cortex (Brodmann's areas 5 and 7). | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 392 | Damage to the posterior parietal lobe produces agnosia, an inability to perceive objects. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 393 | Agnosias most commonly seen with lesions in the right posterior parietal visuocortex are among the most remarkable that can be seen in neurological patients. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 393 | Because the idea of having a left limb is completely foreign to them, patients may deny the existence of any paralysis in the limb and may attempt to leave the hospital prematurely, since they believe nothing is wrong with them. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 394 | Memory of extra personal space is stored with a body-centered frame of reference. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 396 | Consciousness derives from physical properties of the brain. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Unity of consciousness -- our continuous and connected experience of events. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Consciousness has many forms, e.g., the alert state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Activation of the thalamus and cortex by neurons of the brainstem and its reticular formation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Degrees of alertness (heightened attention, and difference, and attention, sleepiness) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Major modulatory systems of the brainstem -- cholinergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic systems -- acting on the thalamus and cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 400 | Alertness can be general or focused, as when we selectively attend to one object in the external world to the exclusion of others. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 401 | Parietal cortex contributes to selective attention to the location of objects in space. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 401 | Selective attention enhances the responses of neurons in many brain areas, including neurons in the frontal cortex and superior colliculus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 401 | Francis Crick and Christof Koch have proposed that the attentional signals that modulate neurons in the visual system originate in the prefrontal cortex, the multimodal association areas concerned with planning and motor strategies. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 402 | Representation of the body becomes related to the representation of visual space, whether actual, imagined, or remembered. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 402 | Portions of the parietal lobe constitute the most distinctly human aspects of cortical organization. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 411 | Coding of Sensory Information | 9 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 413 | Sensory systems encode four elementary attributes of stimuli -- modality, location, intensity, and timing -- which are manifested in sensation. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 414 | Since ancient times five major sensory modalities have been recognized -- vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. In addition to these classical senses we also consider the somatic senses of pain, temperature, itch, and proprioception (posture and movement of parts of the body) and vestibular sense of balance (the position of the body in the gravitational field). | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 416 | Each class of sensory receptors makes connections with distinctive structures in the central nervous system. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 416 | Sensory systems comprise the somatosensory system, visual system, auditory system, vestibular system, olfactory system, and gustatory system. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 418 | Spatial distribution of sensory neurons activated by a stimulus conveys information about the stimulus location. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 418 | Receptive fields of sensory neurons in the somatosensory and visual systems defind the spatial resolution of the stimulus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 419 | Sensory neurons for hearing, taste, and smell are spatially organized according to sensitivity. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 419 | Intensity of sensation is determined by the stimulus amplitude. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 421 | Psychophysical laws govern the perception of stimulus intensity. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 421 | Relationship between this stimulus strength and the intensity of sensation experienced by a person. I = K log S/S0 | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 421 | The intensity of sensation is best described by a power function rather than by a logarithmic relationship. I = K(S - S0)n | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 421 | Stimulus intensity is encoded by the frequency of action potentials in sensory nerves. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 423 | The duration of sensation is determined in part by the adaptation rates of receptors. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 426 | Sensory information is conveyed by populations of sensory neurons acting together. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 426 | Sensory systems process information in a series of relay nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 427 | Inhibitory interneurons within each relay nucleus help sharpen contrast between stimuli. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 428 | The location and spatial dimensions of a stimulus are conveyed topographically, through each activated receptor's position in the sensory epithelium, called this receptive field. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 430 | Bodily Senses | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 430 | Nerve transmits information from the receptor by modulation of the frequency of electrical impulses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 430 | Morphologically distinct receptors transduce particular forms of energy and transmit this information to the brain through nerve fibers dedicated to that modality. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 430 | Pain is not the result of overstimulation of a generalized cutaneous receptor but results from electrical activity transmitted by specific sensory receptors called nociceptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 430 | Somatic sensibility has four major modalities: (1) discriminative touch, (2) proprioception, (3) nociception, (4) temperature sense. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 431 | Dorsal root ganglion neuron is a sensory receptor and the somatic sensory system. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 432 | Touch is mediated by mechanoreceptors in the skin. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 432 | Mechanoreceptors differ in morphology and skin location. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 432 | Virtually all mechanoreceptors have specialized end organs surrounding the nerve terminal. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 436 | Two-point discrimination varies throughout the body surface (diagram) | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 436 | Spatial resolution of stimuli on the skin varies throughout the body because the density of mechanoreceptors varies. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 437 | Vibration sense is coded by spike trains and mechanoreceptors in the skin. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 438 | Spatial characteristics of objects are signaled by populations of mechanoreceptors. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 441 | Warmth and cold are mediated by thermal receptors. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 442 | Pain is mediated by nociceptors. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 443 | Proprioception is mediated by mechanoreceptors in skeletal muscle and joint capsules. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 443 | Viscera have mechanosensory and chemosensory receptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 444 | Mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors are innervated by large-diameter myelinated axons whereas thermal receptors and nociceptors are small myelinated or unmyelinated axons. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 444 | Fiber size affects the speed at which action potentials are conducted to the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 444 | Large fibers conduct action potentials more rapidly because the internal resistance to current flow along the axon is low and the nodes of Ranvier are far more widely spaced along the length. | 0 | ||
| 444 | Conduction velocity; m/sec, mm/ms | 0 | |||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 444 | Myelinated: (large, 72-120), (medium 36-72), (small 4-36) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 444 | Unmyelinated: (0.4-2.0) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 445 | Distribution of dermatomes (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 445 | Dermatome maps are an important diagnostic tool for locating the site of injury to the spinal cord and dorsal roots. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 445 | 31 pairs of dorsal roots are labeled by the corresponding vertebral foramen through which the root enters the spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 445 | Facial skin is innervated by the three branches of the trigeminal nerve. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 446 | Large fiber neuropathy, selective loss of axons, diabetes, large sensory fibers degenerate. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 446 | Topographic arrangement of receptors in the skin is preserved as the central processes of the dorsal root ganglion neurons enter the spinal cord through the dorsal roots. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 446 | Upon entry to the spinal cord the central axons of dorsal root ganglion neurons branch extensively and project to nuclei in spinal gray matter and brainstem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 446 | Sensory specialization of dorsal root ganglion neurons is preserved in the central nervous system through distinct ascending pathways for the various somatic modalities. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 448 | Crossing of fibers in the medulla and pons. Right side of the brain receives sensory information from the limbs and trunk on the left side of the body. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 448 | Input from the legs are located most laterally, while those from the arm are located more medially. Inputs from the face are most medial. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 451 | Touch | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 458 | Columnar organization of cortical neurons is a consequence of the pattern of connections between neurons in different layers of cortex. | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 472 | Perception of Pain | 14 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 472 | Pain -- pricking, burning, aching, stinging, soreness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 472 | Pain is a percept. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Highly individual and subjective nature of pain. There are no painful stimuli -- stimuli that invariably elicit the perception of pain in all individuals. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Many wounded soldiers do not feel pain until thery are safely remove from battle. Athletes often do not detect their injuries and until their game is over. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Pain can be persistent or chronic. Persistent pain characterizes many clinical conditions and is a major reason why patients seek medical attention, whereas chronic pain appears to serve no useful purpose; it only makes patients miserable. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Persistent pain can be subdivided into two broad classes, nociceptive and neuropathic. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Nociceptive pains result from the direct activation of nociceptors in the skin and soft tissues in response to tissue injury and usually arise from accompanying inflammation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Sprains and strains produce mild forms of nociceptive pain, whereas the pain of arthritis or a tumor that invades soft tissue is much more severe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Neuropathic pains result from direct injury to nerves in the peripheral or central nervous systems and often have a burning or electric sensation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Neuropathic pains include the severe pain that occurs in some patients after a bout of shingles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 473 | Three major classes of nociceptors -- thermal, mechanical, polymodal. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 474 | The three classes of nociceptors are widely distributed in the skin and deep tissues. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Neuropeptides enhance and prolong the actions of glutamate. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Actions of glutamate released from sensory terminals are confined to postsynaptic neurons in the immediate vicinity of the synaptic terminals as a result of the efficient reuptake of amino acids into glial cells or nerve terminals. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Neuropeptides released from sensory terminals can diffuse considerable distances from their site of release because there is no specific reupdate mechanism. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Release of neuropeptides from a single afferent fiber are likely to influence many postsynaptic dorsal horn neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Peptide actions contribute both to the excitability of dorsal horn neurons and to the unlocalized character of many pain conditions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Sensitization -- repeated application of noxious mechanical stimuli to nearby nociceptors that were previously unresponsive. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 477 | Sensitization of nociceptors after injury or inflammation results from the release of a variety of chemicals by the damaged cells and tissues in the vicinity of the injury. The chemicals act to decrease the threshold for activation of nociceptors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 478 | Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory analgesics. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 478 | Cardinal signs of inflammation -- heat (calor), redness (rubor), swelling (tumor). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 478 | Heat and redness are produced by the dilation of peripheral blood vessels, whereas swelling results from plasma extravasation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 481 | Cingulate gyrus is part of the limbic system and is thought to be involved in processing the emotional component of pain. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 482 | Neurons in the insular cortex process information on the internal state of the body. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 482 | Insular cortex may integrate the sensory, affective, and cognitive components. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 483 | Opium poppy -- opiates such as morphine and codeine are effective analgesic agents. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 489 | Repeated use of morphine to relieve pain can cause patients to develop increasing resistance to the effects of the drug, so that progressively higher doses are required to achieve the same analgesic effect. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 489 | Addiction refers to psychological craving. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 489 | Psychological addiction almost never occurs when morphine is used to treat chronic pain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 489 | Soldiers wounded in battle and athletes injured in sporting events report that they do not feel pain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 490 | Pain is dependent on experience and varies from person to person. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 492 | Constructing the Visual Image | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 507 | Visual Processing by the Retina | 15 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 523 | Central Visual Pathways | 16 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 526 | Superior colliculus controls saccadic eye movements. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 527 | Saccadic eye movements -- shift the gaze rapidly from one point in the visual scene to another. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 527 | Control of a saccadic eye movements is thought to be controlled by inputs from the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 529 | Lateral geniculate nucleus is the principal subcortical site for processing visual information. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 548 | Perception of Motion, Depth, and Form | 19 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 550 | Separate pathways to the temporal and parietal cortices course through the extrastriate cortex beginning in V2. (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 553 | Middle temporal area (MT) appears to be devoted to motion processing. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 553 | MT has a retinotopic map of the contralateral visual field, but the receptive fields of cells within this map are about 10 times wider than those of cells in the striate cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 553 | Cells with similar directional specificity are organized into vertical columns, running from the surface of the cortex to the white matter. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 553 | In the human brain, an area devoted to motion has been identified at the junction of the parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 565 | The limited capacity of the visual system means that at any given time only a fraction of the information available from the two retinas can be processed. | 12 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 565 | Selective filtering of visual information is achieved by visual attention. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 565 | Posterior parietal cortex, a region known from clinical studies to be involved in attention. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 566 | Binding problem and visual system | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 566 | Information about motion, depth, form, and color is processed in many different visual areas and organized into at least two cortical pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 566 | Complex visual images are built up at successively higher processing centers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 566 | Binding problem -- how consciousness of an ongoing, coherent experience emerges from the information processing being conducted independently in different cortical areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 566 | Associative process by which multiple features of one object are brought together in a coherent percept requires attention. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 567 | Neurons have larger and larger receptive fields at higher levels in the cortical visual pathways. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 567 | Wolfgang Singer and colleagues. When an object activates a population of neurons in the visual cortex, the neurons tend to oscillate and fire in unison. These oscillations indicate a synchrony among cells, which could bind together the activity of cells responding to different features of an object. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 567 | Barry Richmond and colleagues. Neurons extending from the LGN to the inferior temporal cortex convey information in the temporal pattern of the spikes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 567 | Cells in different areas all convey some information about a number of stimulus features, but different cells carry comparatively more or less about each feature. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 568 | Dorsal pathway extends from V1, through areas MT and MST, to the posterior parietal cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 568 | Ventral pathway extends from V1, through V4, to the inferior temporal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 568 | Dorsal or posterior parietal pathway is concerned with determining where an object is. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 568 | Ventral or inferior temporal pathway is involved in recognizing what the object is. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 568 | Motion and depth information in the dorsal posterior parietal pathway and on form perception in the ventral inferior temporal pathway. Both pathways represent hierarchies for visual processing that lead to greater abstraction at successive levels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 572 | Color Vision | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Hearing | 18 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Human hearing commences when the cochlea, a snail shaped receptor organ, of the inner ear, transducers sound energy into electrical signals. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Cochlea contain cellular amplifiers that augment our auditory sensitivity and are responsible for the first stages of frequency analysis. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Each of the paired cochleas contains slightly more than 30,000 reset the hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Damage to or deterioration of the hairs cells accounts for most of the hearing loss in the nearly 30,000,000 Americans who are afflicted with significant deafness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Information flows from the cochlea to the brainstem through a richly interconnected series of nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 590 | Brain stem components of the auditory pathway are essential for localizing sound sources and suppressing the effects of echoes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | Auditory regions of the cerebral cortex further analyze auditory information and deconstruct complex sound patterns such as human speech. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | The ear has three functional parts -- external ear, middle ear, inner ear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | Our capacity to localize sounds in space, especially along the vertical axis, depends critically abundant sound gathering properties of the external ear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | The middle ear is an air-filled pouch extending from the pharynx, to which it is connected by the eustachian tube. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | Mechanical energy derived from airborne sound progresses across the middle ear as motions of three tiny ossicles, or bones -- the malleus, or hammer; the incus, or anvil; the stapes, or stirrup. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 591 | The base of the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | The flattened termination of the stapes, the footplate, inserts in an opening -- the overall window -- in the bony covering of the cochlear. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | The first two ossicles of the middle ear are relics of evolution, for their antecedents served as components the jaw of reptilian ancestors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | Human cochlear consists of a progressively diminishing diameter conical structure like a snail's shell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | Each cochlea is about 9 mm across. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | The interior of the cochlea consists of three fluid filled tubes wound helically. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 592 | The basilar membrane, which forms the partition between the scala media and its subjacent scale tympani, is a complex structure upon which auditory transduction occurs. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Weber-Fechner law -- we perceive sound logarithmically with the increase in sound pressure level. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | 0 dB SPL is defined as the sound pressure whose rms value is 20 mPa, corresponding to the approximate threshold of human hearing at 4 kHz, the frequency at which our ears are most sensitive. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | The loudest sound tolerable to humans, with an intensity of about 120 dB SPL, transiently alters the local atmospheric pressure (about 105 Pa) by much less than 0.1%. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Sound pressure waves impinge upon the tympanum, displacing the malleus, which is fixed to the inner surface of the eardrum. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | The motions of the ossicles are complex, depending upon both the frequency and intensity of sound. The action of these bones may be understood as two interconnected levers, the malleus and incus, and a piston, the stapes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | This stapes footplate serves as a piston that pushes and pulls cyclically upon the fluid in the scala vestibuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Conductive hearing loss by the ossicles is important because surgical intervention is highly effective. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Functional Anatomy of the Cochlea | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Basilar membrane is a mechanical analyzer of sound frequency. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | The mechanical properties of the basilar membrane are key to the cochlea's operation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 593 | Suppose that the basilar membrane had uniform dimensions and mechanical properties along its entire length, about 33 mm. This simple form of basilar membrane occurs in the auditory organs of some reptiles and birds. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The critical characteristic of the basilar membrane and in mammalian clock is that it is not uniform. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The basilar membrane's mechanical properties vary continuously along the cochlea's length. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The cochlea chambers become progressively larger from the organ's apex toward its base. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The basilar membrane is relatively thin and floppy at the apex of the cochlea but thicker and more taut toward the base. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | Because of the systematic variation in mechanical properties along the basilar membrane, stimulation with a pure tone evokes the greatest amplitude at a particular position. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | A traveling wave of asending the basilar membrane, reaches its maximum amplitude at the position appropriate for the frequency of stimulation, then rapidly declines in size as it advances toward the cochlea apex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The energy that evokes movement in each segment of the basal membrane comes from motion of the fluid masses above and below the membrane. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The mammalian basal membrane is tuned to a progression of frequencies along its length. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | At the apex of the human cochlea the partition responds best to the lowest frequencies that we can hear, down to approximately 20 Hz. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The basilar membrane at the cochlea base responds to frequencies as great as 20 kHz. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | Intervening frequencies are represented along the basilar membrane and a continuous array. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The cochlea deconstructs sounds by confining the action of each component tone to a discrete segment of the basilar membrane. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The arrangement of vibration frequencies in the basilar membrane is an example of tonotopic map. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The relation between characteristic frequency and position along the basilar membrane varies smoothly and monotonically but is not linear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | The logarithm of the best frequency is roughly proportional to the distance from the cochlea's apex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 594 | A vowel sound in human speech ordinarily comprises, at any instant, three dominant frequency components. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | Each traveling wave of sound reaches its peak excursion at the basal membrane position appropriate for the relative frequency component. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The basal membrane acts as a mechanical frequency analyzer by distributing stimulus energy to the hair cells arrayed along its length according to the various pure tones that make up the stimulus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The basal membrane's pattern of motion begins the encoding of the frequencies and intensities in a sound. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The organ of Corti is the receptor organ of the inner ear, containing the hair cells and a variety of supporting cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The organ of Corti appears as an epithelial ridge extending along the length of the basalar membrane. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The approximately 16,000 hairs cells in each cochlea are innervated by about 30,000 afferent nerve fibers, which carry information into the brain along the eighth cranial nerve. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | Both the hair cells and the auditory nerve fibers are tonotopically organized. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | At any position along the basilar membrane, the hair cells are optimally sensitive to a particular frequency, and these frequencies are logarithmically mapped in ascsending order from the cochlea's apex to its base. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 597 | The organ of Corti includes a wealth of cell types, most of obscure function. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 598 | Every hair cell is most sensitive to stimulation at a specific frequency. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 598 | On average, successive inner hair cells differ in characteristic frequency by about 0.2%. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | A traveling wave evoked even by a pure sinusoidal stimulus spreads appreciably along the basalar membrane. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | The tuning curve is a graph of sound intensity, presented logarithmically in decibels of sound pressure level, against stimulus frequency. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | Sound energy is mechanically amplified in the cochlea. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | A large portion of the energy in an acoustical stimulus must go into overcoming the damping effects of cochlea fluid on basilar membrane motion rather than into excitation of hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | The sensitivity of the cochlea is too great, and auditory frequency selectivity to sharp, to result solely from the inner ear's passive mechanical properties. The cochlea must have some active means of amplifying sound energy. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | One indication that amplification occurs in the cochlea comes from experimental results that show that the motion of the basil membrane is augmented over 100-fold during low intensity stimulation, but that this effect diminishes progressively as the stimulus grows in strength. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 599 | Inner ear's performance requires amplification. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Neural Processing of Auditory Information | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Ganglion cells innervate cochlear hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Information flows from the cochlear hair cells to neurons whose cell bodies lie in the cochlea ganglion. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | About 30,000 ganglion cells innervate the hair cells of each inner ear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | At least 90% of the cochlea ganglion cells terminate on inner hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Each cochlea ganglion cell axon innervates only a single hair cell, but each hair cell direct its output to several nerve fibers, on average nearly 10. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | The neural information from which hearing arises originates almost entirely at inner hair cells, which dominate the input to cochlea ganglion cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | The output of each and her hair cell is sampled by many nerve fibers, which independently encode information about the frequency and intensity of sound. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Each hair cell forwards information of somewhat differing nature to the brain along separate axons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | At any point along the cochlear spiral, or any position within the spiral ganglion, neurons respond best to stimulation at the characteristic frequency of the contiguous hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | The tonotopic organization of the auditory neural pathways does begin at the earliest possible site, and immediately postsynaptic to inner hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Relatively few cochlea ganglion cells innervate outer hair cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Cochlea nerve fibers encode stimulus frequency and intensity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | Each axon in the cochlear nerve is most responsive to stimulation at a particular frequency of sound. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 601 | The acoustic sensitivity of axons in the cochlear nerve mirrors the innervation pattern of spiral ganglion cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 603 | Sound processing begins in the cochlear nuclei. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 603 | Each auditory nerve fiber branches as it enters the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 603 | Each of the three cochlea nuclei is tonotopically organized; cells with progressively higher characteristic frequencies are arrayed in orderly progression along one axis of the structure. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 604 | Central auditory pathways extend from the cochlear nucleus to the auditory cortex. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 606 | Relay nuclei in the brainstem mediate localization of sound sources. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | The medial geniculate nucleus constitutes the thalamic relay of the auditory system. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | Medial geniculate nucleus is organized tonotopically. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | In the medial geniculate nucleus most cells are sharply tuned to specific stimulus frequencies, and most are responsive to stimulation through either ear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | Sensitivity to interaural time or intensity difference is a property first elaborated in the interior colliculus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | Auditory information is processed in multiple areas of the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 608 | The ascending auditory pathway terminates in the cerebral cortex, where several distinct auditory areas occur on the dorsal surface of the temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 609 | The most prominent projection from the principal nucleus of the medial geniculate nucleus extends to the primary audio cortex (Brodmann areas 41 and 42) on the transverse gyrus of Heschl. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 609 | The cytoarchitectonically distinct region contains a tonotopic representation of characteristic frequencies; neurons tuned to low frequencies occur in the rostral end of the area, while the caudal region includes cells responsive to high frequencies. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 609 | The parallel processing and conformal mapping of the auditory cortex resembles the somatosensory and visual cortices. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 609 | Although most neurons in the primary auditory cortex are responsive to stimulation through either ear, their sensitivities are not identical. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 609 | It is highly probable that the human auditory cortex is subdivided into numerous functional areas, but the positions and roles of such areas remain to be determined. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 614 | Sensory transduction in the Ear | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 625 | Smell and Taste: Chemical Senses | 11 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 653 | Organization of Movement | 28 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 653 | Brain constructs internal representations of the world by integrating information from the different sensory systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 653 | Motor systems of the brain and spinal cord allow us to maintain balance and posture and to communicate through speech and gesture. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 653 | The pirouette of a ballet dancer, the powered backhand of a tennis player, the fingering technique of the pianist, and the coordinated eye movements of a reader all require a remarkable degree of motor skill. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 653 | After a period of training, the brain's motor systems execute motor programs with ease, for the most part automatically. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Conscious processes are not necessary for the moment-to-moment control of movement. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Vision supplies critical cognitive information about the location and shape of objects. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Loss of vestibular input impairs the ability to maintain balance and orientation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Components of the motor systems are organized hierarchically. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Relatively automatic behaviors include rhythmic behaviors, such as breathing or running as well as reflexes, such as knee-jerk or coughing. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Reflexes and automatic rhythmic movements are stereotyped, in contrast to the endless varieties of voluntary movements. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Spinal cord contains local circuits that coordinate reflexes, and these same circuits participate in more complex voluntary movements governed by higher brain centers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Three distinct categories of movement: (1) reflexive, (2) rhythmic, and (3) voluntary. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Reflexes are involuntary coordinated patterns of muscle contraction and relaxation elicited by peripheral stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 654 | Receptors in muscles produce stretch reflex whereas cutaneous receptors produce withdrawal reflexes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 656 | Repetitive arrhythmic motor patterns include chewing, swallowing, and scratching. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 656 | Circuits for repetitive rhythmic motor patterns lie in the spinal cord and brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 656 | Moment-to-moment control is called feedback. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 656 | Anticipatory mode is called feed-forward control. Detect imminent perturbations and initiate proactive strategies based on experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Very sensitive mechanicoreceptors in muscles. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Cutaneous afferents in the fingertips provide critical feedback signals. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Feed-forward control is widely used by motor systems to control posture and movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Catching a ball is a visually triggered feet-forward response, predicting balls path. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Spinal circuits can mediate rapid feedback adjustments. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 657 | Feed-forward control is essential for rapid action. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 659 | Motor program is a representation of the plan for movement. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 660 | Nervous system deconstructs complex actions into elemental movements that have highly stereotyped spatial and temporal characteristics. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Simple spatiotemporal elements of a movement are called movement primitives or movements schemas. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Voluntary reaction times are significantly longer than the latencies of reflex responses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Voluntary responses to proprioceptive stimuli range from 80 to 120 ms. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Shortest latency for monosynaptic reflex response to muscle stretches is only about 40 ms. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Longer response time for the voluntary response results from the additional synapses interposed between afferent input and motor output. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Reactions to visual stimuli require more time (150-180 ms), because of the larger number of synaptic relays in the retina. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Summation time of synapses is highly variable. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Reaction time increases systematically with the number of choices available. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | For complex tasks, reaction times are half a second to a second. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 661 | Voluntary responses are processed in stages, including a step in which appropriate response is selected from among alternatives. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Processing of sensory inputs and commands to motor neurons and muscles is distributed in hierarchically interconnected areas of the spinal cord, brain stem, and forebrain. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Each level of the hierarchy has circuits that can, through their input and output connections, organize or regulate complex motor responses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Sensory information relating to movement is processed in different systems that operate in parallel. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Spinal cord is the lowest level in the hierarchical organization. It contains the neuronal circuits that mediate a variety of reflexes and rhythmic automatisms such as locomotion and scratching. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Reflex movements of the face and mouth are located in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Simplest neural circuits are monosynaptic, includes only the primary sensory neuron and the motor neuron. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Most reflexes are mediated by polysynaptic circuits, where one or more interneurons are interposed between the primary sensory neuron and the motor neuron. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Interneurons and motor neurons also receive input from axons descending from higher centers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Supraspinal signals can modify reflex responses to peripheral stimuli by facilitating or inhibiting different populations of interneurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Supraspinal signals also coordinate motor actions through interneurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | All motor commands eventually converge on motor neurons, whose axons exit the spinal cord or brain stem to innervate skeletal muscles. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | The next level above the spinal cord in the motor hierarchy is in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Cortex is the highest level of motor control. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Primary motor cortex and several premotor areas project directly to the spinal cord and also regulate motor tracks that originate in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Premotor areas are important for coordinating and planning complex sequences of movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Premotor areas receive information from the posterior parietal and prefrontal association cortices and project to the primary motor cortex as well as to the spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | The variety of reflex circuits in the spinal cord and brain stem simplifies the instructions the cortex must send the lower levels. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | By facilitating some circuits and inhibiting others, higher levels can let sensory inputs at lower levels govern the temporal details of an evolving movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Patterns of coordination in spinal circuits are relatively stereotyped. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Cerebellum and basal ganglia influence cortical and brainstem motor systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Cerebellum and basal ganglia provide feedback circuits that regulate cortical and brainstem motor areas. They receive inputs from various areas of cortex and project to motor areas of the cortex via the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 663 | Loop circuits of the basal ganglia and cerebellum flow through separate regions of the thalamus to different cortical areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 665 | Inputs to the basal ganglia and cerebellum from the cortex are separate. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 665 | Cerebellum and basal ganglia do not send significant output to the spinal cord, but they do act directly on projection neurons in the brainstem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 665 | Basal ganglia have increasingly been implicated in motivation and the selection of adaptive behavioral plans. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 665 | Cerebellum circuits are involved with the timing and coordination of movements in progress and with the learning of motor skills. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 666 | Release phenomena are abnormal and stereotyped responses that are explained by the withdrawal of tonic inhibition from neuronal circuits mediating a behavior. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 668 | Brain stem contains, in addition to the motor nuclei that regulate the facial muscles, many groups of neurons that project to the spinal gray matter. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Primary motor cortex lies in the precentral gyrus in Brodmann's area 4. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Axons of cortical neurons that project to the spinal cord run together in the corticospinal tract, a massive bundle fibers containing about 1 million axons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | About a third of the corticospinal fibers originate from the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe; another third originate from area 6, the rest originate in areas 3, 2, and 1 in the somatic sensory cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Medullary pyramid, a conspicuous landmark on the ventral surface of the medulla. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Corticobulbar fibers that control muscles of the head and face terminate in motor and sensory (cranial nerve) nuclei in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | In humans, corticobulbar fibers form monosynaptic connections with motor neurons in the trigeminal, facial, and hypocolossal nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Movements of the eyes are controlled by a different system. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Major cortical inputs to the motor areas of cortex are from the prefrontal, parietal, and temporal association areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Major subcortical input to the motor cortical areas comes from the thalamus where separate nuclei convey inputs from the basal ganglia and cerebellum. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 671 | Spinal reflexes show that the spinal cord contains neural circuits for generating simple and coordinated movements. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Motor commands are organized hierarchically. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Brain stem integrates spinal reflexes into a variety of automated movements that control posture and locomotion. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Several interconnected areas of cortex that project to the descending systems of the brainstem and spinal cord initiate and control complex voluntary movements. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Somatotopic map of the body -- somatotopic organization is preserved in the outputs of each component. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Each level of motor control receives peripheral sensory information that is used to modify the motor output at that level. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 672 | Motor programs are refined continuously by learning. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 674 | Motor unit and Muscle action | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 695 | Diseases of the Motor unit | 21 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 713 | Spinal Reflexes | 18 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 737 | Locomotion | 24 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 756 | Voluntary movement | 19 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 760 | Supplementary motor area -- medial parts of areas 6. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 768 | When a particular finger is moved, digit neurons are dispersed throughout the hand control area of primary motor cortex. The manner in which the activity is coordinated to produce a finger movement is analogous to population coding. | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 779 | Planning and execution of voluntary movement relies on sensorimotor transformations in which representations of the external environment are integrated into motor programs. | 11 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 782 | Control of gaze | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | Saccadic system points the fovea toward objects of interest. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | Eyes explore the world in a series of active fixations connected by saccades. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | Saccades are highly stereotyped. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | Saccades are extremely fast, occurring within a fraction of a second, at speeds up to 900°/s. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | Distance of the target from the fovea determines the velocity of a saccadic eye movement. We can change the amplitude and direction of our saccades voluntarily but we cannot change their velocities. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 784 | No time for visual feedback to modify the course of the saccade; corrections to the direction of movement are made in successive saccades. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 792 | Saccades are controlled by the cerebral cortex. | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 792 | Eye movements are a component of the cognitive behavior of higher mammals. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 792 | Cortex controls the saccadic system through the superior colliculus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 792 | Superior colliculus is a major visuomotor integrator region. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 793 | Superior colliculus is controlled by two regions of the cerebral cortex. Brodmann's area 7 of the posterior parietal cortex modulates visual attention, and the frontal eye field of Brodmann's area 8 provides motor commands. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 794 | Parietal cortex controls visual attention. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 801 | Vestibular system | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 816 | Posture | 15 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum | 16 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum constitutes only 10% of the total volume of the brain but contains more than half of its neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum neurons are arranged in a highly regular manner as repeating units, each of which is a basic circuit module. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum is divided into several distinct regions, each of which receives projections from different portions of the brain and spinal cord and projects to different motor systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Regions of the cerebellum performed similar computational operations but on different inputs. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum influences the motor systems by evaluating disparities between intention and action. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum adjusts the operation of motor centers in the cortex and brain stem while a movement is in progress as well as during repetitions of the same movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Cerebellum is provided with extensive information about the goals, commands, and feedback signals associated with the programming and execution of movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | 40 times more axons project into the cerebellum than exit from it. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Output projections of the cerebellum are focused mainly on the premotor and motor systems of the cerebral cortex and brain stem, systems that control spinal interneurons and motor neurons directly. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 832 | Synaptic transmission in the cerebellum's circuit modules can be modified, a feature crucial for a motor adaptation and learning. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 833 | Cerebellum is not necessary for basic elements of perception or movement. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 833 | Damage to the cerebellum disrupts the spatial accuracy and temporal coordination of movement. It also markedly impairs motor learning and certain cognitive functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 833 | Cerebellum is connected to the dorsal aspect of the brain stem by three symmetrical pairs of tracks: (1) inferior cerebellar peduncle, (2) middle cerebellar peduncle, (3) superior cerebellar peduncle. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 833 | Superior cerebellar peduncle contains most of the afferent projections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 835 | Cerebellar cortex has a simple three layered structure consisting of only five types of neurons. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 835 | Purkinje neurons have large cell bodies (50-80 µ) and fanlike dendritic organization that extends upward into the molecular layer. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 835 | Purkinje neurons provide the output of the cerebellar cortex which is entirely inhibitory and mediated by the neurotransmitter GABA. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 835 | Innermost or granular layer of the cerebellar cortex contains a vast number (estimated at 1011) granule cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 835 | Cerebellum received two main types of afferent inputs, mossy fibers and climbing fibers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Mossy fibers originate from nuclei and the spinal cord and brain stem. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | In humans each Purkinje cell receives input from as many as one million granule cells, each of which collects input from many mossy fibers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Climbing fibers originate from the inferior olivary nucleus and convey somatosensory, visual, or cerebral cortical information. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Climbing fibers are so named because they wrap around the cell bodies and proximal dendrites of Purkinje neurons like vines on a tree, making numerous synaptic contacts. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Individual Purkinje neurons receive synaptic input from only a single climbing fiber, whereas each climbing fiber contacts 1-10 Purkinje neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Terminals of the climbing fibers in the cerebellar cortex are arranged topographically. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Highly specific connectivity of the climbing fiber system contrasts markedly with the massive convergence and divergence of the mossy and parallel fibers. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 837 | Climbing fibers have unusually powerful synaptic effects on Purkinje neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 846 | Cerebrocerebellum has a role in the planning and programming of hand movements. | 9 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 846 | Cerebellum has cognitive functions independent of motor functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 847 | Inferior olive, the source of climbing fibers to the cerebellar cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 849 | The kind of motor adaptation and learning with which the cerebellum is concerned requires trial-and-error practice. Once the behavior becomes adapted as learned, it is performed automatically. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 849 | After a knee jerk produced by the tap of a reflex hammer, the leg normally comes to rest after the jerk. In patients who have cerebellar disease, the leg may oscillate up to 6 or 8 times before coming to rest. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Cerebellum compares internal feedback signals that report intended movement with external feedback signals that report actual movement. When movement is repeated, the cerebellum is able to generate corrective signals and gradually reduce the error. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Corrective signals generated by the cerebellum are feed-forward or anticipatory actions that operate on the descending motor systems of the brain stem and cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Oscillations and tremor that follow lesions of the cerebellum are due to the failure of feed-forward mechanisms. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Cerebellum also plays a role in motor learning. Climbing fibers might participate in motor learning. Because of their low firing frequencies, climbing fibers have a very modest capability for transmitting moment-to-moment changes in sensory information. Instead, they are thought to be involved in detecting the error in one movement and in changing the program for the next movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Cerebellum seems to have a role in some purely mental operations. Cerebellum's cognitive functions appear to be similar to its motor functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 850 | Lateral cerebellum appears to be particularly important for learning both motor and cognitive tasks in which skilled responses are developed through repeated practice. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 853 | Basal Ganglia | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 853 | Basal ganglia do not have direct input or output connections with the spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 853 | Basal ganglia receive their primary input from the cerebral cortex and send their output to the brain stem and, via the thalamus, back to the prefrontal, premoter, and motor cortices. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 853 | Motor functions of the basal ganglia are mediated, in large part, by the motor areas of the frontal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 854 | Motor actions of the basal ganglia are mediated in large part through the supplementary, premotor, and motor cortices via the pyramidal system. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 854 | Basal ganglia consists of several interconnected subcortical nuclei with major projections to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and certain brain stem nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 854 | Basal ganglia receive major inputs from the cerebral cortex and thalamus and send their outputs back to the cortex (via the thalamus) and to the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 854 | Basal ganglia are major components of large cortical-subcortical reentrant circuits linking cortex and thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Four principal nuclei of the basal ganglia are: (1) striatum, (2) globus pallidus, (3) substantia nigra (consisting of pars reticulata and pars compacta), and (4) subthalamic nucleus. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Striatum consists of three subdivisions: (1) caudate nucleus, (2) putamen, and (3) ventral striatum (which includes the nucleus accumbens). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Internal capsule -- a major collection of fibers that runs between the neocortex and the thalamus in both directions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Striatum is the major recipient of inputs to the basal ganglia from the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Striatum neurons project to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Globus pallidus and substantia nigra give rise to the major output projections from the basal ganglia. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Globus pallidus lies medial to the putamen, just lateral to the internal capsule, and is divided into external and internal segments. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Cells of the substantia nigra pars compacta are dopaminergic and contain neuromelanin, a dark pigment. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 855 | Subthalamic nucleus cells (glutamatergic) are the only excitatory projections of the basal ganglia. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Striatum also receives excitatory inputs from the intralamina nuclei of the thalamus, dopaminergic projections from the midbrain, and serotonergic input from the raphe nuclei. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Although the striatum appears homogeneous, it is anatomically and functionally highly heterogeneous. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Although the striatum contains several distinct cell types, 95% of them are GABA-ergic medium spiny projection neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Medium spiny projection neurons of the striatum are both major targets of cortical input and the sole source of output. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Medium spiny projection neurons of the striatum are largely quiescent except during movement or in response to peripheral stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | The two output nuclei of the basal ganglia, the internal pallidal segment and the substantia nigra pars reticular, tonically inhibit their target nuclei in the thalamus and brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Inhibitory output of the basal ganglia is modulated by two parallel pathways that run from the striatum to the two output nuclei: one direct and the other indirect. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 856 | Indirect pathway passes first to the external pallidal segment (GPe), then to the subthalamic nucleus (SN), and finally to the output nuclei of the internal pallidal segment (GPi). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Projection from the subthalamic nucleus is the only excitatory intrinsic connection of the basal ganglia; all others GABA-ergic and inhibitory. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Neurons in the two output nuclei of the basal ganglia discharge tonically at high frequency. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | When excitatory inputs transiently activate the direct pathway from the striatum to the pallidum, tonically active neurons in the pallidum are briefly suppressed, permitting the thalamus and ultimately the cortex to be activated. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Activation of the direct pathway disinhibits the thalamus, thereby increasing thalamocortical activity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Activation of the indirect pathway further inhibits thalamocortical neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Activation of the direct pathway facilitates movement, whereas activation of the indirect pathway inhibits movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Dopaminergic inputs to the two pathways lead to the same effect -- reducing inhibition of the thalamocortical neurons and thus facilitating movements initiated in the cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Without dopaminergic action in the striatum, activity of the output nuclei increases. This increased output in turn increases inhibition of the thalamocortical neurons that otherwise facilitate initiation of movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Basal ganglia also contribute to a variety of behaviors other than voluntary movement. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 857 | Basal ganglia have extensive and highly organized connections with virtually the entire cerebral cortex, as well as the hippocampus and amygdala. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Each area of the neocortex projects to a discrete region of the striatum and does so in a highly topographic manner. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Association areas project to the caudate and rostral putamen. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Sensorimotor areas project to most of the central and caudal putamen. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Limbic areas project to the ventral striatum and olfactory tubercle. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Segregated basal ganglia--thalamocortical circuits. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Structural convergence and functional integration occur within, rather than between, the five identified basal ganglia--thalamocortical circuits. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 858 | Given the highly topographic connections between the striatum and the pallidum and between the pallidum and the subthalamic nucleus, it is unlikely that there is significant convergence between neighboring circuits. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 865 | Glutamate is the principal excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system. It is present in nerve terminals at high concentration (10-3 M). | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 871 | Brain stem -- small region of the central nervous system located between the spinal cord and the diencephalon. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 871 | Brain stem contains the locus ceruleus, crucial for attention and for cognitive functions. Fully half of all noradrenergic neurons of the brain are clustered together in this small nucleus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 872 | Hypothalamus, with closely linked structures in the brain stem and limbic system, acts directly on the internal environment through its control of the endocrine system and autonomic nervous system. It acts indirectly through its control of emotional and motivational states. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 872 | Hypothalamus, together with the brain stem below and the cerebral cortex above, maintain a general state of arousal, which ranges from excitement and vigilance to drowsiness and stupor. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 872 | Six neural systems in the brain stem modulate sensory, motor, and arousal systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 872 | Dopaminergic pathways that connect midbrain to the limbic system and cortex are involved in reinforcement of behavior and therefore contribute to motivational state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 872 | Addictive drugs such as nicotine, alcohol, opiates, and cocaine are thought to produce their actions by co-opting the same neural pathways that positively reinforce behaviors essential for survival. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Brain Stem, Reflexive behavior, and the Cranial Nerves | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Basic behaviors are organized by the brain stem and consist of relatively simple stereotypic motor responses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Feeding involves coordination of chewing, licking, and swallowing, motor responses that are controlled by local ensembles of neurons in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Many complex human responses are made up of relatively simple, stereotyped motor responses governed by the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Infants can cry, smile, suckle, and move their eyes, face, arms, and legs. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Brain stem can organize virtually the entire repertory of newborn's behavior. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | The core of the brain stem is the reticular formation. It is homologous to the intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord and is likewise complex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 873 | Like the spinal cord, the reticular formation of the brain stem contains ensembles of local circuit interneurons that generate motor patterns and coordinate reflexes and simple stereotyped behaviors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 874 | Functions of the cranial nerves (table) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 880 | Intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord contains primarily interneurons that coordinate spinal reflexes and motor responses. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 885 | Medulla includes the pyramidal tracts and the inferior olivary nuclei. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 885 | Core of the brain stem tegmentum is called the reticular formation. This region is homologous to the intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord, containing interneurons responsible for generating spinal reflexes and simple motor patterns. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 885 | Viseral functions of the Vegas nerve. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 887 | Simple motor responses can be assembled into more complex behaviors under voluntary control by the forebrain. The precise patterns of motor response are organized locally in the brain stem reticular formation. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 889 | Brain Stem modulation of Sensation, Movement, and Consciousness. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 889 | Reticular interneurons and local projections mediate reflexes and simple stereotyped behaviors, such as chewing and swallowing. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 889 | Reticular formation has long projection axons that ascend to the forebrain or descend to the spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 889 | Reticular formation is composed of systems of neurons with specific neurotransmitters and connections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 890 | Major modulatory systems of the brain. (1) noradrenergic, (2) adrenergic, (3) dopaminergic, (4) serotonergic, (5) cholinergic, (6) histaminergic. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 890 | Noradrenergic and adrenergic neurons in the medulla and pons. (diagram) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 891 | Adrenergic cell groups (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 891 | Locus ceruleus, which maintains vigilance and responsiveness to unexpected environmental stimuli, has extensive projections to the cerebral cortex and cerebellum, as well as the descending projections to the brain stem and spinal cord. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 891 | Noradrenergic neurons in the pons (diagram) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 892 | Dopaminergic neurons in the brain stem and hypothalamus (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 893 | Serotonergic neurons along the midline of the brain stem (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 894 | Cholinergic neurons in the upper pontine tegmentum and basal forebrain diffusely innervate much of the brain stem and forebrain. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 895 | The largest collection of noradrenergic neurons is in the pons in the locus ceruleus. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 895 | Histaminergic neurons in the brain are located in the hypothalamus. (diagram) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 895 | Five monoaminergic systems of neurons in the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 895 | Each of these six neuronal systems has extensive connections in most areas of the brain and each plays a major role in modulating sensory, motor, and arousal tone. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 896 | Ascending projections from the brain stem modulate arousal and consciousness. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 897 | Ascending arousal system divides into two major branches at the junction of the midbrain and diencephalon. One branch enters the thalamus, where it activates and modulates nuclei with extensive diffuse cortical projections. Other branch travels through the lateral hypothalamus area, joined by other cell groups, all of which diffusely innervate the cerebral cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 897 | Ascending arousal system diffusely innervates the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 897 | EEG invented in the late 1920s by Hans Berger, a Swiss psychiatrist. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 897 | Electrical activity in the cerebral cortex reflects the firing patterns in the thalamocortical system, a necessary component of maintaining a waking state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 898 | Rhythmic nature of thalamic activity. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 899 | Either branch of the ascending arousal system -- the pathway to the thalamus or the pathway through the hypothalamus -- can impair consciousness. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 899 | Acute transections rostral to the level of the inferior colliculus invariably result in coma. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Ascending arousal system consist of axons of cell populations in the upper brain stem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Main pathway in the brain stem or its branches in the thalamus or hypothalamus can cause loss of consciousness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Large pyramidal neurons in the hippocampal formation and cerebral cortex (particularly layers 3 and 5) are the cells most severely damaged by inadequate oxygenation (hypoxia) or insufficient blood flow (ischemia). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | After a period of one or two weeks of coma, patients enter a contentless wake-sleep cycle call a 'persistent vegetative state.' | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Persistent vegetative state must be distinguished from 'brain death,' in which all brain functions cease. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Brain dead patients may have spinal level motor responses, which may include patterned activity such as withdrawal movements or even and rare instances sitting up or moving the arms. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Brain dead patients have no purposeful movements of the limbs, face, or eyes; no brainstem reflex responses to sensory stimulation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Human brain stem is capable of organizing many stereotyped behaviors, ranging from eye movements orofacial responses, postural control, and even walking. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Brain stem regulates the overall level of activity of the forebrain by controlling wake-sleep cycles and modulating the passage of sensory information, especially pain, to the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Locked in syndrome -- injury to the lower brainstem; patients remain awake, but the intact forebrain is unable to interact with the external world. Exact opposite of patients in a persistent vegetative state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 900 | Persistent vegetative state -- extensive forebrain impairment as a result of hypoxia; patients appear to be awake but lack completely the content of consciousness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 904 | Pupilloconstrictor system -- balance between parasympathetic and sympathetic. (diagram) | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 905 | Pupillary dilation is regulated by a descending pathway from the hypothalamus. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 910 | Seizures and Epilepsy | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 911 | Modern surgical treatment for epilepsy dates to the work of Wilder Penfield and Herbert Jasper in Montréal in the early 1950s. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 911 | About 3% of all people living to the age of 80 will be diagnosed with epilepsy. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 911 | Symptoms of epilepsy are dependent on the location and extent of brain tissue that is affected. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 911 | Seisures can be classified clinically into two categories: (1) partial and (2) generalized. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | A partial seizure may began as localized jerking in the right hand and progress to movements of the entire right arm. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | Generalized seizures began without a preceding oral or focal seizure and involve both hemispheres from the onset. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | The most common generalized seizure is the tonic-clonic or grand mal, seizure. These convulsive seizures began abruptly, often with a grunt or cry. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | During the tonic phase the patient may fall to the ground rigid with clenched jaw, lose bladder or bowel control, and become blue. The tonic phase typically last 30 seconds before evolving into clonic jerking of the extremities lasting 1-2 min. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | Clinically, it can be difficult to distinguish a primary generalized tonic-clonic seizure from a secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizure with a brief aura. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | Recurrent unprovoked seizures constitute the minimal criteria for the diagnosis of epilepsy. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 913 | Neurons are excitable cells. It is logical to assume that seizures result either directly or indirectly from a change in the excitability of single neurons or groups of neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Deep structures such as the hippocampus, thalamus, or brain stem do not contribute directly to the surface EEG. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Surface EEG shows typical patterns of activity that can be correlated with various stages of sleep and wakefulness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Normal human EEG shows activity over a range of 1-30 Hz with amplitudes in the range of 20-100 μV. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Alpha waves (8-13 Hz) of moderate amplitude are typical of relaxed wakefulness and are most prominent over parietal and occipital sites. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Lower-amplitude beta activity (13-30 Hz) is more prominent in frontal areas and over other regions during intense mental activity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Alerting a relaxed person results in the desynchronization of the EEG, with a reduction in alpha activity and an increase in beta. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 916 | Theta waves (4-7 Hz) and delta waves (0.5-4 Hz) are normal during drowsiness and earliest slow wave sleep. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 917 | Defining feature of partial (and secondarily generalized) seisures is that the abnormal electrical activity originates from a seizure focus. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 919 | Normal response of a typical cortical pyramidal neuron to excitatory input is an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) followed by an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 919 | Benzodiazepines (Valium) enhance GABA-mediated inhibition and are the standard emergency treatment for prolonged repetitive seizures. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 920 | Primary motor and sensory cortex are organized into vertical columns that run from the pial surface to the underlying white matter. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 920 | Major input to the sensory cortex comes from the thalamus and terminates in a layer 4, whereas the output cells are in layer 5. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 920 | Thalamus and cortex are connected by a reciprocal thalamocortical pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 920 | Intracortical connections occur via short U fibers between adjacent sulci and via the corpus callosum, the major interhemispheric connection. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 920 | Epileptic seizure -- once both hemispheres become involved, the patient generally loses consciousness. Seizure spread usually occurs rapidly during a few seconds. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 922 | Generalized epileptic seizures evolve from thalamocortical circuits. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 922 | A generalized seizure shows simultaneous disruption of normal brain activity in both cerebral hemispheres from the onset. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 922 | A partial seizure that rapidly generalizes can be difficult to distinguish from a primary generalized seizure. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 924 | Intrinsic bursting of thalamic relay neurons -- Rodolfo Llinás. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 924 | Circuitry of the thalamus seems ideally suited to the generation of primary generalized seizures. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 925 | Pioneering studies of Wilder Penfield in Montreal led to the recognition that removal of the temporal lobe in certain patients with partial seizures of hippocampal origin could reduce or cure epilepsy. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 925 | Precise location of the seizure focus is essential. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 925 | In a primary generalized seizure, diffuse interconnections between the thalamus and cortex are the primary route of seizure propagation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 930 | A single seizure does not warrant a diagnosis of epilepsy. Normal individuals can have a seizure under extenuating circumstances. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 930 | Generalized seizures may be due in part to genetic predisposition. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Genetic epilepsy syndromes in humans have complex rather than simple Mendelian inheritance patterns, suggesting the involvement of many genes rather than a single one. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Cortical malformations in patients with epilepsy, suggesting that altered cortical development may be a common cause of epilepsy. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Epilepsy often develops after a discrete cortical injury. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Brain areas such as the hippocampus are more susceptible to the development of epilepsy. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Chronic stimulation of hippocampal inputs to the dentate gyrus or CA1 leads to hyperexcitability and the loss of the affected neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Death of neurons is thought to result from over excitation by the release of large amounts of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Dentate gyrus provides the main entry point to the hippocampal formation from the neocortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 931 | Dentate gyrus can be thought of as the 'gatekeeper' of excitability in the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 932 | Hypothetical role of the dentate gyrus as the 'gatekeeper' for seizures involving the hippocampus (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 933 | Gradual loss of GABA-ergic surround inhibition is critical to the early steps in the progression of partial seizures. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 933 | Generalized seizures are thought to arise from activity in thalamocortical circuits. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 934 | Epilepsy surgery for selected patients, particularly those with complex partial seizures of hippocampal onset. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 936 | Sleep and Dreaming | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | Circadian rhythms are endogenous; they require a pacemaker or internal clock. One major internal clock in mammals is this suprachiasmatic nucleus in the anterior hypothalamus. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | Humans usually fall asleep by entering non-REM sleep. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements and also by complete inhibition of skeletal muscle tone. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | Most dreams occurr during REM sleep. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | During non-REM sleep, neuronal activity is low and metabolic rate and brain temperature are at their lowest. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | Parasympathetic activity dominates during the non-REM phase of sleep. Muscle tone and reflexes are intact. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | Awake people have low-voltage EEG activity (10-30 μV and 10-25 Hz). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 937 | As people relax they show sinusoidal (alpha) activity of about 20-40 μV and 10 Hz. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 939 | Non-REM and REM phases alternate cyclically during sleep. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 939 | After about 70-80 minutes of non-REM sleep, the sleeper enters the first REM phase of the night, which lasts about 5-10 minutes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 939 | In humans, the length of the cycle from the start of non-REM sleep to the end of the first REM phase is about 90-110 minutes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 939 | Cycle of non-REM and REM sleep is typically repeated four to six times a night. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 939 | Midbrain reticular formation promotes the waking state. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 940 | Non-REM sleep is regulated by interacting sleep-inducing and arousal mechanisms. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 940 | Synchronized synaptic potentials are generated by the rhythmic firing of thalamic relay neurons that project of the cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 940 | Rhythmic firing of the thalamic relay neurons is a result of actions of GABA-ergic neurons in the nucleus reticularis, a nucleus that forms a shell around the thalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 941 | Major regions of the brain stem and forebrain involved in sleep control are shown in a sagittal section (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 941 | An important component of the midbrain arousal system arises from the cholinergic neurons in the midbrain and the adjacent dorsal pons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 941 | In the absence of the rhythmic firing of the reticular neurons, thalamocortical relay cells fire only asynchronously, resulting in the low-voltage EEG characteristic of waking and REM sleep. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | All mammals sleep. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | Daily sleep ranges from about 4-5 hours in giraffes and elephants to 18 hours or more in bats, opossums, and giant armadillos. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | Like mammals, birds showed non-REM and REM sleep, but their sleep episodes are much shorter; REM episodes may last only several seconds. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | It is likely that sleep is functionally important because it has persisted throughout the evolution of mammals and birds. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | Metabolic rate during sleep is only 15% less than during quiet wakefulness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 944 | Small mammals tend to sleep the most. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 945 | REM sleep is neither necessary nor sufficient for dreaming. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 946 | No theory of sleep has succeeded in explaining the exact function of sleep. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 948 | Disorders of Sleep and Wakefulness | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 960 | Autonomic Nervous System and the Hypothalamus. | 12 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 964 | Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system (diagram) | 4 | ||
| I is | 971 | Hypertension, Atenolol | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 974 | Pathways that distribute viseral sensory information to the brain (diagram) | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 975 | Pathways that control autonomic responses (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 976 | Structure of the hypothalamus (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 977 | Hypothalamus contains an array of specialized cell groups with different functional roles. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 977 | Hypothalamus is very small, but it is packed with a complex array of cell groups and fiber pathways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 977 | The most anterior part of the hypothalamus, overlying the optic chiasm, includes the circadian pacemaker (suprachiasmatic nucleus). | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 977 | Major nuclei of the hypothalamus are located for the most part in the medial part. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 977 | Hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland both directly and indirectly through hormone releasing neurons (diagram) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 978 | Hypothalamus controls the endocrine system directly. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 979 | Direct and indirect control form the basis of modern understanding of hypothalamic control of endocrine activity. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 980 | In addition to the small molecule neurotransmitters -- ACh and norepinephrine -- a wide variety of peptides is thought to be released by all autonomic neurons. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Emotional states and Feelings | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Pleasure, elation, euphoria, ecstasy, sadness, despondency, depression, fear, anxiety, anger, hostility, and calm -- these and other emotions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Emotional state has two components: (1) a characteristic physical sensation and (2) a conscious feeling. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | The term 'emotion' sometimes is used to refer only to the bodily state, and the term 'feeling' is used to refer to the conscious sensation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Many drugs that affect the mind -- ranging from addictive street drugs to therapeutic agents -- do so by acting on specific neural circuits concerned with emotional states and feelings. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Conscious feeling is mediated by the cerebral cortex, in part by the cingulate cortex and by the frontal lobes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 982 | Emotional responses involve subcortical structures: the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the brain stem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 983 | The peripheral component of emotion also communicates emotion to others. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 983 | Human's social communication of emotions is mediated primarily by the muscles that control facial and postural expressions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 984 | The feeling state, the conscious experience of emotion, occurs after the cortex receives signals about changes in our physiological state. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 984 | Hypothalamus and thalamus have a key role in mediating emotion, including regulating the peripheral signs of emotion, and providing the cortex with the information required for the cognitive processing of emotion. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 985 | During the past decade, the neural pathways for peripheral (autonomic) and central (evaluative) components of emotion have been identified with some precision. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Peripheral component of emotion involves the hypothalamus, while the central, evaluative component, both unconscious and conscious, involves the cerebral cortex, especially the cingulate and prefrontal cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Amygdala coordinates the conscious experience of emotion and the peripheral expressions of emotion, in particular fear. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Unconscious evaluation of the emotional significance of a stimulus begins before the conscious processing of a stimulus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Hippocampus is the core of the medial temporal lobe system concerned with conscious memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Damage to the hippocampus interferes with remembering the cognitive features of fear -- where the fear provoking stimulus was and in what context it occurred. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Cognitive systems present us with choices of action -- whereas unconscious appraisal systems limit the options to a few adaptively important choices. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Memory has two major forms: (1) a conscious (explicit) memory for facts and personal events and (2) an unconscious (implicit) memory for motor and sensory experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Memory of emotional states (autonomic and somatic responses) involves implicit memory storage, whereas memory of feelings involves explicit memory storage. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Hypothalamus acts on the autonomic nervous system by modulating visceral reflex circuitry that is basically organized at the level of the brainstem. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 986 | Hypothalamus is not only a nucleus for the autonomic nervous system, it is also a coordinating center that integrates various inputs to ensure a well-organized, coherent, and appropriate set of autonomic and somatic responses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Limbic system consists of a limbic lobe and subcortical structures. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Medial forebrain bundle. (diagram) Connects limbic system with old reptilian brain by way of a very large bidirectional pathway. (Johnston, 111) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Rabies virus characteristically attacks the hippocampus -- patients show profound changes in emotional state, including bouts of terror and rage. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Hypothalamus communicates reciprocally with areas of the cerebral cortex; information about the conscious and peripheral aspects of emotion affect each other. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Hippocampal formation processes information from the cingulate gyrus and conveys it via the fornix to the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Fornix -- fiber bundle that carries part of the outflow of the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 987 | Hypothalamus provides information to the cingulate gyrus by a pathway from the mammillary bodies to the anterior thalamic nuclei and from there to the cingulate gyrus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 988 | Amygdala is the part of the limbic system most specifically involved with emotional experience. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Inferotemporal cortex is involved in the explicit memory of facial identity. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Amygdala is concerned with the implicit memory of the appropriate cues that signal emotions expressed by faces. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Recognition of emotional expression in faces involves the amygdala. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Response of the left amygdala increases with increasing fearfulness and decreases with increasing happiness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Appropriate responses to the sight of emotionally charged signals are coded by the inferior temporal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Neurons in the inferior temporal cortex respond to facial features, including the direction of gaze. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 989 | Since the amygdala receives input from the inferior temporal cortex and has strong connections to the autonomic nervous system, it can mediate emotional responses to complex visual stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 990 | Recognition of facial expressions is essential for successful social behavior. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 990 | Amygdala is a complex structure, consisting of about 10 distinct nuclei. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 990 | Amygdala mediates both inborn and acquired emotional responses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 990 | Sensory information about sound is conveyed to the basolateral complex from two sources: (1) directly and rapidly from the auditory nucleus in the thalamus, and (2) indirectly and more slowly from the primary sensory areas of the cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 991 | For many types of emotions, particularly fear, information conveyed from the thalamus to the amygdala is especially important because it can initiate short-latency, primitive emotional responses that may be important in situations of immediate danger. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 991 | Fear-potentiated startle | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 992 | Emotional memories are not stored in the amygdala directly but are stored in the cingulate and parahippocampal cortices, with which the amygdala is interconnected. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Motivational and Addictive states | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Cognitive aspects of behavior -- what a person knows about the outside world. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Motivation -- a catch-all term that refers to a variety of neuronal and physiological factors that initiate, sustain, and correct behavior. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Behaviorists, who dominated the study of behavior in the first half of the 20th century, largely ignored internal factors in their attempt to explain behavior. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | With the rise of cognitive psychology, the behaviorist paradigm has receded, and motivation with all its complexity has become the subject of serious scientific study. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Drive states are the outcome of homeostatic processes related to hunger, thirst, and temperature regulation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 998 | Motivational states may be broadly classified into two types: (1) elementary drive states such as hunger, thirst, and temperature, and (2) personal or social aspirations. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Personal and social aspirations represent a complex interplay between physiological and social forces, and between conscious and unconscious mental processes. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Activities that enhance immediate survival, such as eating or drinking. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Activities that ensure long-term survival, such as sexual activity or caring for offspring, are pleasurable, and there is a great natural urge to repeat these behaviors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Drive states have general effects; they increase our general level of arousal. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Drive states serves three functions: (1) they direct behavior toward or away from a specific goal; (2) they organize individual behaviors into a coherent, goal oriented sequence; and (3) they increase general alertness, energizing the individual to act. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Drive states are simple motivational states that can be modeled as servo-control systems. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 999 | Physiological control involves both inhibitory and excitatory effects. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1000 | Integrator and controlling elements for temperature regulation are located in the hypothalamus. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1001 | Hypothalamus also controls endocrine responses to temperature challenges. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1006 | Hypothalamus regulates water balance. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1007 | Circadian rhythm for virtually every homeostatic function. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1007 | Pleasure is a key factor in controlling the motivated behavior of humans. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1008 | Cocaine craving can be elicited by environmental cues reminiscent of cocaine usage. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1009 | Human brain has relatively few dopaminergic neurons, equally divided between the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1009 | Dopaminergic neurons send their axons to the nucleus accumbens, the striatum, and the frontal cortex, three structures thought to be involved in motivation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1011 | Brain reward circuitry and the rat (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1012 | Motivational states involve neural mechanisms that are widely distributed throughout the brain, but hypothalamic mechanisms play a particularly prominent role. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1012 | Hypothalamus through its control of hormonal release and the autonomic nervous system, is involved in the regulation of behavioral states such as stress and anxiety. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1012 | Neural systems that mediate reward and pleasure use a variety in neurotransmitters, but dopamine in particular has been implicated. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Induction and Patterning of the Nervous System | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Cells of the neural plate acquire differentiated properties, giving rise both to immature neurons and to glial cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Immature neurons migrate from zones of cell proliferation to their final positions and extend axons toward their target cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Contacts between growing axons and target cells initiates the process of selective synapse formation, during which some synapse contacts are strengthened and others eliminated. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Electrical and chemical signals passed across synapses can control patterns of conductivity. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Great variety of neural cell types -- both neurons and glial cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1019 | Estimated to be many hundreds of different neuronal types, far more than in any other organ of the body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1020 | Neural plate folds in stages to form the neural tube.(diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1021 | Successive stages and the development of the neural tube (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1021 | Neural development mechanisms are conserved in different organisms. Molecular basis of neural development in vertebrates derives from organisms such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1021 | Entire nervous system arises from the ectoderm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1022 | Forebrain; telencephalon -- cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampal formation, amygdala, olfactory bulb | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1022 | Forebrain; diencephalon -- thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus, retina, optic nerve is tracts | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1022 | Inductive signals control cell differentiation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1023 | Neural plate is induced by signals from adjacent mesoderm. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1025 | Sonic hedgehog and BMP signaling pattern the neural tube along the dorsoventral axis. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1026 | Sonic hedgehog signaling controls cell identity and pattern in the ventral neural tube. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Neurons involved in sensory input are located in the dorsal half of the spinal cord, whereas those involved in motor output are located in the ventral half. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Early differentiation of cell types in the ventral neural tube is controlled by signals from the mesoderm cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Cell differentiation in the dorsal half is controlled by signals from non-neuronal cells in the epidermal ectoderm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Sonic hedgehog (SHH) exerts a powerful influence on the development of the central nervous system. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Signaling pathway is triggered by the interaction of sonic hedgehog protein with a heterodimeric receptor complex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Transmembrane protein named smoothened generates an intracellular signal that regulates several protein kinases and activates a class of transcription factors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1027 | Sonic hedgehog acts not only as an inducer but also as a morphogen, a type of inductive signal that can direct different cell fates at different concentration thresholds. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1029 | Disruption of different components of the sonic hedgehog signaling pathway results in a wide variety of human diseases. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1029 | Dorsal neural tube is patterned by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) secreted from the epidermal ectoderm and roof plate. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1041 | Generation and Survival of Nerve Cells | 12 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1063 | Guidance of Axons to their Targets | 22 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1063 | Many neurons extend over great distances -- up to several meters in a giraffe -- bypassing billions of potential but inappropriate synaptic targets before terminating in the correct area and recognizing the appropriate targets. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1063 | The pathways along which axons grow provide a large number of diverse molecular cues to guide axons to their targets, and the axons possess exquisitely specific receptors to recognize and interpret these cues. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1069 | The first axons to reach their targets when the embryo is very small, sometimes called "pioneers," respond to molecular cues embedded in cells or the extracellular matrix along their way. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1069 | Axons that arise later in development, when distances are longer and obstacles are more numerous, can reach their targets by following the pioneer neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1070 | Negative cues can repulse advancing axons, causing them to turn, or prevent them from entering the wrong territory. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1070 | Long-range cues and clues soluble molecules that could use some produces cells and can attract or repel axons from afar, albeit with somewhat less precision. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1070 | Growth cones guide the axons by transducing positive and negative cues into signals that regulate the cytoskeleton and thereby determine the course and rate of axon outgrowth. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1072 | Growth cones are stimulated to advanced, retract, or turn. Several motors involving actin, myosin, and membrane components power these reactions. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1073 | Particularly critical for axonal guidance is the coupling between the sensory and motor capabilities of the growth cone. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1073 | Second messengers affect the organization of the cytoskeleton, thereby regulating the direction and rate at which the growth cone moves. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1074 | Numerous effects of embryonic environment on the growing axon are mediated by hundreds of molecular species. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1077 | Cadherins are a group of at least 100 related membrane-spanning glycoproteins. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1077 | Cells throughout the body express cadherins. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1077 | Cadherins on adjoining membranes interact to form adhesive bonds. Each cadherins prefers to bind to its own kind, forming homophilic interactions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1078 | Chemotaxis, in which the axon grows up or down a concentration gradient of a chemotropic factor and is thereby guided in a particular direction. This mechanism is called tropism. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1081 | Ephrins and semaphorins guide growth cones by providing inhibitory signals. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1081 | Axons are guided by long-range inhibitory as well as attractive cues, essentially negative chemotactic factors that axons grow away from. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1081 | Numerous guidance cues line the pathway that anyone axon follows; the growth cone can resolve multiple queues; and several large families of molecules are involved in the transmission and reception of guidance cues. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1084 | Axons receive guidance at intervals along the way. Some axons grow early in the embryo, when distances are short, serving as scaffolds for later growing axons. Other axons grow along epithelial surfaces or extracellular matrices. Sometimes so-called guidepost cells mark sites at which axons need to make divergent choices. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1084 | Growth cone is both a sensory and motive structure. It bears numerous receptors to which environmental cues bind as well as cytoskeletal proteins and actin-based motors that propel it forward. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1087 | Formation and Regeneration of Synapses | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1115 | Sensory Experience and the Fine-Tuning of Synaptic Connections | 28 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1117 | "Critical period" in the maturation of the cortical connections that control visual perception. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 118 | Inputs from the two eyes to the cortex terminate in alternating ocular dominance columns in the primary visual cortex. | -999 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1131 | Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System | 1013 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1131 | In many mammalian species the brain is inherently feminine. Masculine characteristics of structure and function are imposed on the developing central nervous system by the action of testicular hormones during a critical period. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1136 | Testosterone is often thought of as a male sex hormone and estrogen and progesterone as female sex hormones. In reality, each sex has a particular balance of several hormones, although testosterone does predominate in males and estrogen or progesterone in females. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1142 | Men perform better than women on visuospatial tasks, and women perform better than men on verbal tasks. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1142 | Brain function in men appears to be more lateralized than in women. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1142 | Women are more likely than men to recover speech after a stroke that damages cortical speech areas. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1143 | There may be a genetic and anatomical basis for homosexuality. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1145 | Much recent research has focused on neural correlates of the homosexuality. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1146 | A complex behavioral trait such as sexual orientation is unlikely to be caused by a single gene, a single hormone-induced alteration in brain structure, or a single experience in life. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1146 | Etiology of homosexuality must be multifactorial. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1146 | Central nervous system appears to be an inherently feminine. For the mammalian brain to have functional and structural characteristics typical of the male of the species, the developing brain must be exposed to testicular hormones. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1146 | Marked changes in central nervous system structure are likely to occur at puberty. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1149 | Aging of the Brain and Dementia of Alzheimer type | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1169 | Language and the Aphasias | 20 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1188 | Disorders of Thought and Volition: Schizophrenia | 19 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1209 | Disorders of Mood: Depression, Mania, and Anxiety disorders | 21 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1227 | Learning and Memory | 18 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1247 | Cellular mechanisms of Learning and the Biological Basis of Individuality | 20 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1247 | Molecular mechanisms of memory storage are highly conserved throughout evolution. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Elementary forms of learning: habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Vertebrate reflexes such as flexion reflexes, fear responses and eyeblink. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Habituation -- simplest form of implicit learning, an animal learns about the properties of novel stimuli that are harmless. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Charles Sherrington study of reflexes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Organization of interneurons in the spinal cord for vertebrates is quite complex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1248 | Marine sea slug Aplysia has a Central Nervous System containing only about 20,000 Central nerve cells, an excellent simple system for studying implicit forms of memory. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1249 | Synaptic depression of the connections made by sensory neurons, interneurons, or both is a common mechanism for hibituation. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1250 | Sensitization -- when an animal repeatedly encounters a harmful stimulus, it learns to respond more vigorously, even to similar harmless stimuli. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1250 | Sensitization is more complex than habituation | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1252 | Classical conditioning is a more complex form of learning than sensitization. Rather than learning only about one stimulus, the organism learns to associate one type of stimulus with another. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1254 | Long-term storage of implicit memory for sensitization and classical conditioning involves the cAMP-PKA-MAPK-CREB Pathway. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1257 | Hippocampus -- 3 major afferent pathways (diagram) | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1257 | Perforant fiber pathway from the entorhinal cortex forms excitatory connections with the granule cells of the dentate gyrus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1257 | Granule cells of the dentate gyrus have axons that form the mossy fiber pathway, which connects with the pyramidal cells in area CA3 of the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1257 | Pyramidal cells in CA3 project to the pyramidal cells in CA1 by means of the Shaffer collateral pathway. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1257 | LTP is nonassociative in the mossy fiber pathway and is associative in the perforant fiber pathway and Shaffer collateral pathway. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1258 | Long term potentiation (LTP) of the mossy fiber pathway of the CA3 region of the hippocampus. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1259 | Long-term potentiation (LTP) in the Shaffer collateral pathway to the CA1 region of the hippocampus. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1260 | LTP in the Shaffer collateral pathway requires simultaneous firing in both the postsynaptic and presynaptic neurons. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1260 | Hebb's rule, proposed in 1949. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1260 | Fine-tuning synaptic connections during the late stages of development. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1260 | Induction of LTP in the CA1 region of the hippocampus depends on four postsynaptic factors: (1) postsynaptic depolarization, (2) activation of NMDA receptors, (3) influx of Ca2+, and (4) activation by Ca2+ of several second messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | Since induction of LTP requires events only in the postsynaptic cell (Ca2+ influx through the NMDA channels), whereas the expression of LTP is due in part to subsequent events in the presynaptic cells (increase in transmitter release), the presynaptic cells must somehow receive information that LTP has been induced. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | Nitric oxide (NO), a gas that diffuses readily from cell to cell, may be a retrograde messenger from postsynaptic cell to presynaptic cell, involved in LTP. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | Shaffer collateral pathways. LTP in CA1 users two associative mechanisms in series: (1) a Hebbian mechanism (simultaneous firing in both the pre- and postsynaptic cells), and (2) activity-dependent presynaptic facilitation. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | A similar set of mechanisms is responsible for LTP in the perforant pathway. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | LTP has phases. Early LTP lasts 1-3 hours; does not require protein synthesis. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | Four or more trains induce a more persistent phase of the LTP (called late LTP) that lasts for at least 24 hours and requires new protein and RNA synthesis. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1262 | Late phase LTD requires the synthesis of new mRNA and protein and recruits the cAMP-PKA-MAPK-CREB signaling pathway. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Late phase LTP involves the activation, perhaps the growth, of additional presynaptic machinery for transmitter release and the insertion of new clusters of postsynaptic receptors. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Hippocampus contains a cognitive map of the spatial environment in which an animal moves. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Location of an animal in a particular space is encoded in the firing pattern of individual pyramidal cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Mouse's hippocampus has about a million pyramidal cells, each of which is potentially a place cell. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Mouse's whereabouts are signaled by the discharge of a unique population of hippocampal place cells. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | Animal is thought to form a "place field," an internal representation of the space that it occupies. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1264 | When an animal enters a new environment, new place fields are formed within minutes and are stable for weeks to months. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1266 | Same pyramidal cells may signal different information in different environments and can be used in more than one spatial map. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1266 | Low frequencies of stimulation, in the range of 1-10 Hz, are in the physiological range of a prominent spontaneous rhythm in the hippocampus, called the theta rhythm. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1266 | Rapid formation of place fields, and their persistence for weeks. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1274 | cAMP-dependent protein kinase, MAP kinase, and CREB, to convert labile short-term memory into long-term memory. | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1274 | Learning can lead to structural alterations in the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1274 | Brains of identical twins are uniquely modified by experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1275 | Distinctive modifications of brain architecture, along with unique genetic makeup, constitute a biological basis for individuality. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1275 | Practice may strengthen the effectiveness of existing patterns of connections. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1275 | Basis of contemporary neural science is that all mental processes are biological. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1277 | Ongoing modification of synapses throughout life means that all behavior of an individual is produced by genetic and developmental mechanisms acting on the brain. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1277 | Brain stores an internal representation of the world. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1280 | Current flow in Neurons | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1288 | Ventricular organization of Cerebrospinal Fluid: Blood-Brain Barrier, Brain Edema, and Hydrocephalus | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1302 | Circulation of the Brain | 14 | ||
| Kandel; Principles of Neural Science | 1317 | Consciousness and the Neurobiology of the 21st-century | 15 | ||