| Kandel; Search of Memory | |||||
| Book | Page | Topic | |||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 59 | Biology of nerve cells -- three principles: (1) neuron doctrine states that the nerve cell is the fundamental building block and elementary signaling unit of the brain, (2) ionic hypothesis focuses on the transmission of information within the nerve cell, (3) chemical theory of synaptic transmission focuses on the transmission of information between nerve cells. | |||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 60 | Chemical theory of synaptic transmission focuses on the transmission of information between nerve cells. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 61 | British physiologist Charles Sherrington | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 61 | Unlike most of the cells of the body, which have a simple shape, nerve cells have highly irregular shapes and are surrounded by a multitude of exceedingly fine extensions of axons and dendrites. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 62 | Axons and dendrites are extremely thin (about 10-2 the thickness of a human hair). | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 63 | Neuron in the hippocampus (drawn by Cajal) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 70 | Charles Sherrington (1857-1952) photo. | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 91 | Electrical versus chemical theory of synaptic transmission "sparkers" versus "soupers". | 21 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 95 | Three pioneers of synaptic transmission: Stephen Kuffler (1918 -1980), John Eccles 1903 -1997), Bernard Katz (1911 -2002). photo | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 96 | Greatest strength of the scientific method is its ability to disprove a hypothesis. Science proceeds by endless and ever refining cycles of conjecture and refutation. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 98 | Myasthenia gravis, a serious autoimmune disease that occurs primarily in men, produces antibodies that destroy the acetylcholine receptors in muscle cells and thus weakens muscle action. Muscular weakness can become so severe that patients cannot keep their eyes open. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 99 | Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is the amino acid glutamate. Main inhibitory transmitter is the amino acid GABA. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 99 | A variety of tranquilizing drugs -- benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol, and general anesthetics -- bind to GABA receptors and produce a calming effect on behavior by enhancing the receptor's inhibitory function. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 99 | Eccles wrote, "I had been encouraged by Karl Popper to make my hypothesis as precise as possible, so that it would call for experimental attack and falsification, It turned out that it was I who was to succeed in this falsification." | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 101 | Bernard Katz discovered that neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine are not released from the axon terminal as single molecules but in small discrete packets containing about 5000 molecules each. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 102 | Bernard Katz discovered that when an action potential enters a presynaptic terminal, it causes calcium channels to open, letting calcium ions flow into the cell. This leads to the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 105 | Serotonin acts on as many as 18 different types of receptors throughout the brain. LSD seems to produce its hallucinatory actions by stimulating one of these receptors located in the frontal lobe of the brain. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 107 | An anatomically simple system is crucial to the success of a biological experiment. Invertebrate animals are a rich source of simple systems. The choice of an experimental system is one of the most important decisions a biologist makes. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 108 | Kandel graduated from medical school in 1956. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 112 | Sensory homunculus -- Wilder Penfield's sensory map of the body as represented in the brain. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 113 | All sensory information is organized topographically in the brain in the form of precise maps of the body's sensory receptors, such as retina of the eye, basilar membrane in the ear, or skin on the body surface. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 119 | Phrenology -- Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) By the late 1820s Gall's ideas and the discipline of phrenology had become extremely popular. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 121 | Broca (1824-1880) and Wernicke (1848-1905) photos. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 123 | Broca's area and Wernicke's area diagram. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 125 | Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) photo | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 127 | H. M.'s epilepsy | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 128 | Brenda Milner (b. 1918) photo | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 130 | Explicit and implicit memories are processed and stored in different regions in the brain. (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 131 | H. M.'s procedural learning. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 133 | Brenda Milner's papers on HM -- how much these studies clarified our thinking about memory. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 147 | Brain of Aplysia (diagram) | 14 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 167 | Three types of implicit learning: Habituation, Sensitization, Classical conditioning. (Diagram) | 20 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 189 | Habituation and Sensitization | 22 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 191 | Aplysia's simplest behavior, the gill withdrawal reflex. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 192 | How is short-term memory converted to long-term memory in the brain? | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 199 | Psychologist Donald O. Hebb in his influential 1949 book, The Organization of Behavior: a neuropsychological theory. Hebb argued that reverberatory circuits are responsible for short-term memory. | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 211 | Head injuries and concussion can lead to a memory loss called retrograde amnesia. Boxer who suffers a concussion. Epileptic convulsion. | 12 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 211 | In its early phases, memory storage is dynamic and sensitive to disruption. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 214 | Anatomical changes accompany long-term memory. (diagram) | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 217 | Map of the cortex changes with experience (diagram) | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 224 | Two types of circuits in the brain. (1) mediating circuits produce behaviors, (2) modulatory circuits act on the mediating circuits, regulating the strength of their synaptic connections. | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 224 | Once we knew that serotonin acted as a modulatory transmitter to enhance the release of glutamate from the presynaptic terminals of the sensory neuron, the stage was set for a biochemical analysis of memory storage. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 228 | Two classes of receptors: (1) ionotropic receptors produce changes lasting milliseconds. (2) Metabotropic receptors (e.g., serotonin receptors) act through second messengers. They produce changes that last seconds to minutes and are broadcast throughout the cell. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 229 | Biochemical steps in short-term memory. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 233 | Molecules involved in short-term memory. (diagram) | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 241 | Long-term memory formation depends upon this synthesis of new proteins. | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 241 | By 1980, molecular biology had become the dominant and unifying force in biology. Extended its influence to neural science and help create a new science of mind. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 244 | Brenner and Crick in 1961 proved that the genetic code consists of a series of nucleotide triplets. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 244 | Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gohind Khorana in 1961 cracked the genetic code by describing the specific combinations of nucleotides that code for each amino acid. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 245 | Half of the genes expressed in the human genome are present in much simpler invertebrate animals such as the worm C. elegans, the fly Drosophila, and the snail Aplysia. The mouse has more than 90 percent and the higher apes 98 percent of the coding sequences of the human genome. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 248 | Dialogue between the neuron's genes and its synapses in the formation of long-term memory. | 3 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 256 | Changes underlying short- and long-term memory in a single sensory and motor neuron. (diagram) | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 257 | Jacob and Monod inferred what we now know to be a fact: that even in a complex organism like a human being, almost every gene of the genome is present in every cell of the body. Every cell has in its nucleus all of the chromosomes of the organism. In each cell type, only some of those genes are turned on, or expressed, all of the other genes are shut off or repressed. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 257 | Genes are switched on and off as needed to achieve optimal functioning of the cell. Some genes are repressed for most of the lifetime of the organism; Other genes, such as those involved in the production of energy, are always expressed because the proteins they encode are essential for survival. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 257 | Distinguish between effector genes and regulatory genes. Effector genes encode effector proteins such as enzymes and ion channels, which mediate specific cellular functions. Regulatory genes encode regulatory proteins, which switch the effector genes on and off. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 258 | Jacob and Monod not only outlined a theory of gene regulation, they also discovered the first regulators of gene transcription. These regulators come in two forms: repressors, genes that encode the regulatory proteins that shut jeans off, and as later work showed, activators, genes that encode the regulatory proteins that turn genes on. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 259 | In 1983 Eric Kandel shared with Vernon Mountcastle the Lasker Award in basic medical sciences, the most important scientific recognition awarded in the United States. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 265 | Molecular mechanisms for short- and long-term facilitation. (diagram) | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 284 | In 1949, psychologist D. O. Hebb had predicted that some kind of neural coincidence detector would be present in the brain during learning.: "When an axon of cell A . . . excites cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in its firing, some growth process or metabolic changes take place in one or both cells so that A's efficiency is increased." | 19 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 307 | Knowledge of space is central to behavior. | 23 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | We do not have a sensory organ dedicated to space; representation of space is a quintessentially cognitive sensibility; it is the binding problem writ large. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Brain must combine inputs from seven different sensory mode modalities and then generate a complete internal representation that does not depend exclusively on any one input. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Brain commonly represents information about space in many areas and many different ways. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Egocentric coordinates (centered on the receiver) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Where an odor or touch comes from with respect to the body. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Egocentric representation is also used by people or monkeys for orienting to a sudden noise by making an eye movement to a particular location. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Memory for space: encode an organisms position relative to the outside world and the relationship of external objects to one another. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Allocentric coordinates (centered on the world) | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Sensory maps for touch and vision in the brain, which are based on egocentric coordinates. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Egocentric maps for touch and vision discovered by Wade Marshall, Vernon Mountcastle, David Hubel, and Thorsen Wiesel. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | How sensory information comes into the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Hippocampus is concerned with perception of the environment and therefore represents multisensory experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 308 | Hippocampus of rats contains a multisensory representation of extra personal space. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Place cells fire action potentials only when an animal moves into a particular location, while others fire when the animal moves to another place. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Brain breaks down its surroundings into many small overlapping areas, similar to a mosaic, each represented by activity in specific cells in the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Internal map develops within minutes of the rat's entrance into a new environment. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Spatial map of even a simple locale does not form instantaneously but over 10 to 15 minutes of the rat's entrance into the new environment. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Formation of the map is a learning process; practice makes perfect. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Map remain stable for weeks or even months. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Vision, touch, or smell are prewired and based on an a priori knowledge. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Spatial map is based on a combination of a priori knowledge and learning. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | A general capability for forming a spatial map is built into the mind, but the particular map is not. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Unlike neurons in a sensory system, place cells are not switched on by sensory stimulation | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Collective activity of place cells represents the location where an animal thinks it is. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | O'Keefe had discovered place cells in 1971. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 309 | Bliss and Lomo had discovered long term potentiation in the hippocampus in 1973. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 310 | Some of the same molecular actions responsible for long term potentiation are necessary for preserving a spatial map over a long period. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 310 | Protein kinase A and protein synthesis are required for the stabilization of the spatial map. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Explicit memory requires selective attention for encoding and for recall. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Selective attention is widely recognized as a powerful factor in perception, action, and memory -- and the unity of conscious experience. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Animals are inundated with a vast number of sensory stimuli, yet they pay attention to only one or a very small number of them, ignoring or suppressing the rest. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Because of selective attention, internal representations do not replicate every detail of the external world, and sensory stimuli alone do not predict every motor action. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | In our moment-to-moment experience, we focus on specific sensory information and exclude the rest. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Focusing of the sensory apparatus is an essential feature of all perception. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 311 | Vocalization, concentration of consciousness. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | Attention also allows us to bind the various components of the spatial image into a unified whole. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | Four conditions that require increasing degrees of attention: (1) basal or ambient attention is present even in the absence of further stimulation, (2) animals forage for food, (3) animals discriminate between two environments, (4) animals learn a spatial task. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | As a mouse walks around in its enclosure, lights and sounds, which the mouse hates, periodically come on; the only way the mouse could turn them off is to find a small unmarked goal region and sit there for a moment. Mice learn this task very well. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | Even ambient attention is sufficient to allow a spatial map to form and become stable for a few hours, but such a map becomes unstable after three to six hours. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | In the visual system, attention enhances the response of neurons to stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | Modulatory pathway that had been strongly implicated in attention-related phenomena was the one mediated by dopamine. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 312 | Cells that make dopamine are clustered in the mid-brain and their axons project to the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Axons of dopamine producing neurons in the midbrain sends signals to a number of sites, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Prefrontal cortex, which is recruited for voluntary action, signals back to the midbrain, adjusting the firing of the dopamine-producing neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | The fact that some of the same regions of the brain that are recruited for voluntary behaviors are also recruited for attentional processes reinforces the idea that it's selective attention is critical to the unitary nature of consciousness. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Involuntary attention is activated by a property of the external world -- of the stimulus -- and it is captured and according to William James, by "big things, bright things, moving things, or blood." | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Voluntary attention is a specific feature of explicit memory and arises from the internal need to process stimuli that are not automatically salient. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Voluntary attention is a conscious process and is likely to be initiated in the cerebral cortex. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 313 | Both voluntary and involuntary attention recruit biological signals of salience, such as neuromodulatory neurotransmitters, that regulate the function or configuration of a neural network. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | Whether memory is implicit or explicit is the manner in which the attentional signal for salience is recruited. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | Conversion of short-term to long-term memory requires the activation of genes and in each case modulatory transmitters appear to carry an attentional signal marking the importance of a stimulus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | In implicit memory storage, the attentional signal is recruited involuntarily (reflexively), from the bottom up. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | In spatial memory, dopamine appears to be recruited voluntarily from the top down. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | Cerebral cortex activates the cells that release dopamine, and dopamine modulates activity in the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 314 | Similar molecular mechanisms are used for top-down and bottom-up attentional processes. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 316 | Brain imaging shows activation of different areas in men and women as they think about space: the left hippocampus in men and the right parietal and right prefrontal cortex in women. | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 324 | Monod-Jacob theory of gene regulation. | 8 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 324 | Walter Gilbert isolated the first gene regulator, showing that it was a protein that bound to DNA; also developed a method for sequencing DNA, which won him the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1980. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 325 | Receptors for the neurotransmitter serotonin. Almost all of the antidepressants act through serotonin. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 336 | In the 1960s, psychiatric illnesses were classified into two major groups: organic illnesses and functional illnesses, a classification that dated to the 19th century. | 4 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Neurological diseases and psychiatric diseases differer in several important ways. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Neurology has long been based on the knowledge of where in the brain specific diseases are located. Of central concern to neurology -- strokes, brain tumors, degenerative diseases that produce clearly discernible structural damage. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Huntington's disease is a disorder of the caudate nucleus. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Parkinson's disease is a disorder of the substantia nigra. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Amyotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a disorder of motor neurons. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | A number of common neurological illnesses are caused by a single defective gene. Once a mutation is identified, it becomes possible to express the mutant gene in mice and flies and thus to discover how the gene gives rise to disease. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Physicians no longer diagnose neurological disorders solely on the basis of behavioral symptoms. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Mental illness is a much more difficult task than locating structural damage in the brain. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Psychiatric illnesses are disturbances of higher mental functions. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Anxiety states and the various forms of depression are disorders of emotion. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 337 | Schizophrenia is a disorder of thought. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | Emotion and thinking are complex mental processes mediated by complex neural circuitry. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | Although most mental illnesses have an important genetic component, they do not have straightforward inheritance patterns, because they are not caused by mutations of a single gene. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | No single gene for schizophrenia, no single gene for anxiety disorders, depression, or most other mental illnesses. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | Genetic components of mental illnesses arise from the interaction of several genes with the environment. Each gene exerts a relatively small effect, but together they create a genetic predisposition -- a potential for a disorder. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | Most psychiatric disorders are caused by a combination of genetic predispositions and some additional environmental factors. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 338 | Identical twins have identical genes. If one twin has Huntington's disease, so will the other. But if one twin has schizophrenia, the other has only a 50% chance of developing the disease. | 0 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 345 | Neural pathways of learned fear. (mouse diagram) | 7 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 347 | Modifying fear pathways through learning. (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 352 | Schizophrenia is characterized by three types of symptoms. | 5 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 377 | In 1976, at age 60, Francis Crick turned to the biological nature of consciousness. | 25 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 378 | René Descartes' 17th-century ideas were still current in the 1980s, Karl Popper, the Viennese born philosopher of science, and John Eccles, the Nobel laureate neurobiologist, espoused dualism all of their lives. | 1 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 384 | Crick's focus on the claustrum. | 6 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 386 | Ekman's seven universal facial expressions (photos) | 2 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | 407 | "Heil Hitler!" Vienna (photo) | 21 | ||
| Kandel; Search of Memory | |||||