| Joseph LeDoux; Synaptic
Self eԀ � Turning
stress on - (diagram)¶¶Amygdala: centerpiece of the |
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Synapse, nerve terminal,
dendrite |
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Amygdala: centerpiece of the defense system. Amygdala determines whether danger is present and, if so,
initiates bodily responses that were designed by evolution to deal with
danger. |
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Biological mechanisms by which
the brain makes the self. |
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Self is
created and maintained by arrangements of synaptic
connections. |
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Minimum self
-- immediate consciousness of one's self. |
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Narrative self -- coherent self-consciousness that
extends with past and future stories that we tell about ourselves. |
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Traditionally, the mind has been viewed as a trilogy, consisting of cognition, emotion, and motivation. |
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Many important aspects of human social behavior, including decision-making as well as
the way we react to members
of racial and ethnic groups,
are mediated unconsciously. |
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Explicit aspects of the self that we're consciously
aware of are referred to by the term "self-aware". |
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Implicit aspects of the
self are all aspects of the self that are not immediately available to consciousness. |
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All animals
have implicit selves, but
only animals that have the capacity for conscious
self-awareness have explicit
selves. |
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Personality in
a pet does not necessarily mean that the pet is conscious in the human sense. |
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Most brain systems are plastic
and work outside of consciousness; they can be thought of as implicit
memory systems. |
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Our life's experiences contribute to who we
are; implicit and explicit memory storage constitute key mechanisms through which the self is formed and maintained. |
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The way we characteristically
walk and talk, the way we think
and feel, all reflect the workings of systems that function on the basis of past experience,
but their operation takes place outside of
awareness. |
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Self-preservation is a universal motive, independent of whether an organism is aware that it is working
toward this goal. A cockroach can scamper away when a human foot approaches without being explicitly aware of
danger. Bacteria can
detect and move away from harmful molecules in its chemical world. |
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The self is not static;
it is added to and subtracted from by genetic
maturation, learning, forgetting, stress, aging, and
disease. This is true of
both the implicit and explicit aspects of self. |
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Not all aspects of the self are learned; some are due to our genetic heritage. |
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Introversion
is probably the genetic trait with the strongest
genetic influence. |
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Although many extremely shy, introverted children tend to
become anxious, depressed adults, some do just fine. |
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When extreme
introversion is caught early, it can be reversed to
some extent by a supportive family environment, suggesting that genes do not fully dictate psychological destiny. |
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Life's experiences, in the form of learning and memory,
shape how one's genotype is expressed. |
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A person may be shy at work or in social groups, but domineering at home. |
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The self is the totality of what an organism is physically,
biologically, psychologically, socially, and culturally. |
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The self includes things that we know about ourselves and things that we do not know,
things that others know about us that we do not realize. |
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A variety of
different brain systems store information implicitly,
allowing for many aspects of the self to coexist. |
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Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons |
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Spinal reflex
includes sensory neurons, motor neurons
and interneurons in the spinal cord.(diagram) |
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Action potential is generated
in the initial part of the axon where it connects with the cell body. |
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Every human
brain has billions of neurons that together make trillions of synaptic connections among one another. During wakefulness and during sleep, during thoughtfulness and during boredom -- at any one moment, billions of
synapses are active. |
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Projection neurons have relatively long axons that extend out of the area in which their cell bodies are
located. |
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Interneurons
link their short axons to nearby neurons, often projection neurons, and are involved in information processing. |
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Brain circuits can be thought of as hierarchically arranged circuits linked together by synaptic
connections. |
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Projection neurons tend to be idle in the absence of inputs. Inhibitory interneurons are often active all the time. |
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Excitation and inhibition in
circuits - (diagram) |
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Glutamate is a
ubiquitous excitatory transmitter in the brain |
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GABA (an amino acid) is a neurotransmitter of inhibitory neurons. |
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Two major neurotransmitters -- glutamate
and GABA; released from different presynaptic neurons, bind to distinct postsynaptic receptors -- glutamate excitatory, GABA inhibitory. (Diagram) |
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A neuron
receives many excitatory
and inhibitory inputs form many
other cells; the likelihood
of firing at any one moment depends on the net balance between excitation and inhibition across all of the inputs at that particular time. |
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Antianxiety drugs such as Valium work by enhancing GABA's natural
ability to regulate
glutamate. |
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Glutamate and GABA are fast-acting; they cause an electrical change in the postsynaptic cell within milliseconds of being released from the presynaptic
terminal, and their effect is over in a matter of milliseconds. |
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Neurotransmitters acting as modulators have slower and longer-lasting effects |
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Consider three classes of modulators --
peptides, amines, and hormones. Each can have excitatory or inhibitory
effects, depending on the specifics
of their participation in functional circuits. |
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Peptides
represent a large class of slow-acting modulatory substances found throughout the brain. Made up of many amino acids, and are larger molecules than simple amino acids like glutamate and GABA. |
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Peptides
typically have slow
modulatory actions. They can dramatically affect the ability of a cell to be fired by other inputs,
but cannot do so with precise timing. |
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"Jogger's high" is said to be an opiate effect. |
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Monoamines are
a class of modulators that
include substances such as serotonin, dopamine,
epinephrine, and norepinephrine. |
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Cells that
produce monoamines are
found in only a few areas, mostly in the brain stem. |
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Monoamines
achieve their effects by facilitating or inhibiting the actions of glutamate or GABA. |
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Many drugs
used in the treatment of psychiatric
disorders work by altering
monoamines. |
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Prozac
prevents the removal of serotonin from the synaptic space. |
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Amines are targets of recreational
drugs -- cocaine and amphetamine affect norepinephrine and dopamine
levels, while LSD acts on serotonin receptors. |
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Diffuse projections of brain stem monoamine cells to forebrain areas - (diagram) |
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Hormones are a
class of modulators
released from body organs
such as the adrenal, pituitary, or sex glands. |
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Hormones influence the brain -
(diagram) |
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Gap junctions,
synchronizing hippocampal
GABA cells. |
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Amygdala
connected to sensory processing systems and to motor control regions - (diagram) |
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Prozac may
reduce exaggerated fear and anxiety in psychiatric disorders by enhancing the ability of serotonin to facilitate GABA inhibition. |
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Fear system
illustrates the basic elements of neural transmission in the brain and its regulation by modulatory
chemicals. |
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Rate at which
a cell fires spontaneously is a function of certain electrical and chemical characteristics
of the cell. |
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Cell's intrinsic properties, which may have a strong genetic component, will greatly influence everything a cell does. |
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Synapses are
ultimately the key to the brain's many functions, and thus to the self. |
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Brain development is the major battlefield of the nature-nurture conflict. |
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Mental and behavioral
characteristics are functions of the brain, and synaptically connected circuits
underlie brain functions. |
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Shaping of synaptic
connections in early life by genes and experience. |
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Brain development begins in the ectoderm, which, together with the mesoderm and endoderm,
make up the three major parts of the embryo. |
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In humans, the vast majority of neurons are made in the months just prior to birth. At peak production, about 250k neurons are generated per minute. |
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Neuron production process is controlled
by hormones that diffuse up into the neural tube from underlying tissues and turn on genes that make proteins. |
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Synapses change dramatically in early
life. |
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Homeotic genes make proteins that control the placement of cells, providing boundaries that guide and restrict cell movement. |
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Autism might
be due to a mutation of homeotic genes that leads to faulty brain construction and connections. |
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Function of homeotic genes was discovered in studies of fruit flies. |
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Homeotic genes
have been preserved through
many levels of evolutionary history. |
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Projection and
interneurons come to
differ. |
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Chemical factors in the local environment determine the ultimate type of cell that will be expressed. |
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Once a cell's
type is determined, its fate
is sealed. |
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Cell type is not rigidly dictated by genes and is strongly influenced by the environment. |
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Local cues
involved are proteins that
have been genetically coded. |
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Cells have to migrate out from their segregated place
to reach their final
destinations in the
growing brain. |
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Development of
the cortex involves the
building of scaffolds or chemical trails that migrating cells follow. |
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Glial cells
are guided by local chemical cues, made by genes and their by-products, that serve a molecular
signposts, creating barriers that restrict movement and providing adhesive surfaces. |
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Cell migration across the glial
trail (diagram) |
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Crawling along
the glial trail, the young neurons find their way to their target. |
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Neurons reach
their destinations, sprout axons, find their way to their targets, then form synapses. Their pathfinding depends on growth cones. |
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Growth cone pathfinding (diagram) |
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Between 50 and
70 percent of all genes in the human body are in the brain. |
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Neural activity, both intrinsic prenatal and environmental stimulated postnatal, selects from
the initial set of intrinsically established synaptic connections to form the mature neural network. |
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Selectionist ideas originated in evolutionary (Darwinian) biology, were adopted and
adapted by the field of immunology, and were then applied to brain
function.
[Edelman] |
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History of biology is filled with instances of instructional
ideas giving way to selectionist ones. |
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Immunology -- foreign antigens select precursor molecules from a preexisting pool that can be assembled into a large number of antibodies. |
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Jean-Pierre Changeux, neural activity does not create novel connections, but rather, contributes to the elimination of pre-existing ones. |
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Neural selectionism, Gerald Edelman, Nobel Prize for work on immune system; Neural Darwinism; synapses that are used and compete successfully and survive,
while those that are not used perish. |
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Gerald Edelman; pattern of neural circuitry is neither established nor rearranged instructively in response to external influences. |
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External influences select synapses by initiating and reinforcing certain patterns of neural activity that involve
them. |
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Genetic and nongenetic factors interact at each step of brain development. |
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Selection
operates on preexisting connections set up by genes. |
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Establishing the initial connections, much randomness
-- axon terminals and dendrites that happen to be in the same vicinity, form synaptic connections. |
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In spite of a general
genetically programmed plan, the preexisting connections upon which selection ultimately operates also have a unique individualistic nature, from
which experience then does
the selecting. |
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Genes dictate that we will all have a human kind of brain with roughly the same kinds of
circuits, but random
individual differences will
exist, and the connectivity of the circuits, selected by synaptic activity, will shape the individual brain. |
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The "self" is not
constructed, it is selected from preexisting possibilities. |
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Synaptic regression -- pruning
back of exuberant, unused projections during early development. |
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Cognitive development is close to completion by puberty. |
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The greatest number of synapses are present
at around 24 months of age. |
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Synaptic activity prevents cell death. (diagram) |
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Activity only prevents the elimination of synapses
-- "use
it or lose it." |
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Neocortical areas have six layers. |
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Neural Activity leads to an increase in synaptic
complexity. |
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Neural activity can induce the formation of new synaptic connections. |
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Activity helps define the
demarcation between areas of the cortex. Axons from the visual thalamus
spread into the auditory cortex area, and vice versa, early in life. As
development proceeds, the stray connections are pruned back. |
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Activity does
not produce wholesale rewiring of the brain, instead
it makes relatively minor adjustments that make individual brains different. |
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Donald Hebb, 1949, 'Cells
that fire together wire together' |
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NMDA receptors |
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Neurotrophins - promote survival
and growth of neurons. Neurotrophins released from postsynaptic cell, diffuse
backward, taken up by presynaptic terminals; branch and sprout new synaptic
connections. |
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Noam Chomsky; natural language is unique to humans; a universal grammar encoded in the human genome; certain
psychological capacities are innate. |
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Evolutionary psychology - natural selection of mental functions. |
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Subcortical circuits are more likely to be hardwired than cortical ones. |
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Perception of facial expressions of emotion is performed by a species-specific face perception module. |
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Special times
for learning - critical or
sensitive periods - narrow time span in early life - learn a second language
after puberty. |
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Learning is a lifelong process - early years are crucial - foundation for subsequent learning - extensive
plasticity in early life -- synapses do not stop changing. |
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Explicit or Declarative memory |
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Implicit or Nondeclarative
memory |
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Engram -- neural representation of a memory. |
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In 1904,Richard Semon, a German
scientist, coined the term engram
to refer to the neural representation of a memory |
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Karl Lashley,
an American psychologist, spent much of his career searching for the engram.
The result: Memories are stored in a widely distributed fashion in the cortex. |
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HM had surgery to control epilepsy, both medial
temporal lobes removed 1953,
extensively studied aftermath |
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Long-term memory - Explicit,
Implicit |
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Explicit memory - Facts,
Experiences |
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Implicit memory - Conditioning,
Skills, Priming, Other |
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Declarative memory - medial temporal lobe, hippocampus,
parahippocampal (rhinal) areas. |
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Procedural memory |
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Reciprocal connections between hippocampus and neocortex,
long-term storage of memories. |
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Rhinal areas, convergence zones, integrate information across sensory modalities, mental representations go beyond perceptions to become conceptions. |
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Hippocampus
receives inputs from several
convergence zones in the rhinal region; it can be
thought of as a superconvergence zone. |
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Rhinal cortical areas and hippocampus are convergence
zones, regions that receive and integrate inputs from diverse regions. - (diagram) |
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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for depression,
a procedure that often produces memory disturbances as a side effect. |
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Tend to remember recently
learned things better than older ones. |
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Graded effect of retrograde
amnesia, role of hippocampus
changes over time, hippocampus is needed for memory storage initially, but its role decreases as time goes by. |
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Hippocampus
affects recent memories,
but not old ones that have
been consolidated in the cortex. |
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Old memories
are the result of accumulations of synaptic changes in the cortex. |
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Memory consolidation during sleep. |
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During sleep, neural patterns repeated in the
hippocampus, dreaming about the event. |
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Hippocampal playback during
sleep is read and used by the cortex? |
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Only some kinds of memory depend
on the hippocampus. If conscious retrieval is required, the hippocampus tends to be involved. |
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Hippocampus is
involved in human explicit memory. |
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Sensory information comes into the hippocampus from the neocortex via parahippocampal
areas. Memories are established in the neocortex via reverse connections. |
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Hippocampus
slowly feeds new memories
to the cortex during sleep. |
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Hippocampus is
involved in both the semantic and episodic
aspects of declarative memory. |
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Explicit memories - things we were once aware of. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
116 |
|
Implicit memories are reflected more in things we do rather than in things we know. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
117 |
|
Explicit memory is mediated in the medial temporal
lobe. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
121 |
|
Amygdala
contains a dozen or so distinct divisions or areas; relatively few are important for fear conditioning. |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
121 |
|
Lateral nucleus of amygdala is
the input zone, receiving
information from the various senses. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
121 |
|
Lateral nucleus has connections with most of the other amygdala regions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
122 |
|
Central nucleus of the amygdala
is the output zone,
connections with networks that control body
physiology. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
123 |
|
Low road and high road to fear -
(diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
124 |
|
Lateral nucleus of amygdala is
a key site of plasticity
during fear learning. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
130 |
|
Hippocampal damage does not
disrupt normal conscious awareness. |
|
6 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
132 |
|
Hippocampus is
synaptically connected in such a way that its activity
is available to brain systems that mediate conscious awareness. |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
133 |
|
Emotional arousal makes any memory
stronger. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
133 |
|
Memory is more than just what we can recall. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
133 |
|
In Alzheimer's
disease, the hippocampus and related areas are the first to be destroyed. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
133 |
|
Memories are distributed across many brain systems
and many are not available
to you consciously. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
136 |
|
Hebbian plasticity |
|
3 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
137 |
|
John Eccles - synaptic transmission, memory involves synapses. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
137 |
|
Synaptic plasticity |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
138 |
|
Habituation --
repeated stimulus leads to weaker response. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
139 |
|
Long Term Potentiation (LTP), 1973,
changes in the efficiency of synaptic transmission, memory |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
144 |
|
Glutamate receptors, several types
including: AMPA receptor - regular synaptic transmission; NMDA receptor - synaptic plasticity. |
|
5 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
160 |
|
Classical conditioning as Hebbian plasticity - (diagram) |
|
16 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
174 |
|
The cognitive revolution of the
20th century emphasized thinking and related cognitive processes at the expense of emotion and motivation. However it is important to understand that
thinking cannot be fully comprehended if emotions and motivation are ignored. |
|
14 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
175 |
|
Working memory
is one of the brain's most sophisticated capacities and is involved in all aspects of thinking and problem-solving. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
176 |
|
Verbal systems
are mainly present in the human brain, whereas nonverbal systems are present in all brains. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
176 |
|
Working memory is temporary;
its contents have to be constantly updated, but it depends on long-term memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
Remembering is
an imaginative
construction, built on a whole
active mass of past
experiences. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
When we face a problem, we draw
upon mental schemata, organized bundles of stored knowledge. [a kind of FAP, perhaps?] |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
Can only keep a few things
active in our minds (in working memory) at once - seven pieces of
information. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
Expand working
memory capacity by chunking or grouping information - seven letters, seven words, seven ideas. [a kind of FAP, perhaps?] |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
One reason human
cognition is so powerful is because we have language in our brains, which exponentially increases the ability to categorize information. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
177 |
|
Working memory
is more than just an area for temporary storage. Thinking involves juggling of mental items - comparing, contrasting, judging, predicting. Executive functions of working memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
178 |
|
Executive is
involved in scheduling the sequence of steps in a complex task. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
179 |
|
Frontal lobes are
involved in executive functions (planning, problem-solving, behavioral control), as well as in short-term or temporary
memory. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
179 |
|
Frontal lobes
account for about one-third of the mass of the human brain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
179 |
|
All mammals
have frontal cortex, but for most, its main job is movement
control. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
179 |
|
Working memory
can process information
from diverse sources,
allowing the information to be compared, contrasted, integrated, and
otherwise cognitively manipulated by executive
functions. Working memory must be able to store the information temporarily. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
180 |
|
Prefrontal neurons, delayed response tasks, temporary storage, cells active during delay periods, retain
information during delay period. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
180 |
|
Prefrontal cortex is a convergence zone; receives connections from various
specialized regions (visual, auditory, etc.);
receives connections from hippocampus and other cortical areas involved in
long-term explicit memory; retrieve stored
information. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
180 |
|
Prefrontal cortex sends connections to areas involved in
movement control (frontal
cortex and subcortical regions), allowing executive
decisions to be converted into voluntary actions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
180 |
|
Studies of [a kind of FAP,
perhaps?], combined with the vast amount of knowledge about anatomical connections and functions of
the visual system, have
helped construct a fairly detailed understanding of the synaptic
connections underlying working
memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
181 |
|
Working memory is mediated by neural networks in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). - (diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
181 |
|
Pathways of visual
processing in the cortex. Two broad aspects: (1) "what" and (2) "where". |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
181 |
|
"What" pathway is involved in object recognition. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
181 |
|
"Where" pathway is involved in figuring out the spatial location of that object relative to other stimuli in the outside world. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
181 |
|
"What" pathway involves a processing stream that travels from the primary visual
cortex to the temporal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
"Where" pathway goes from the primary cortex to the parietal
cortex, then an end stage in the prefrontal cortex. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
"What" area in the temporal cortex is also connected with the prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
Maintenance of
visual information in working memory; pathways between specialized areas (e.g. visual cortex) and the prefrontal region. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
Pathways from specialized cortical areas tell prefrontal cortex "what"
is there and "where"
it is located. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
Two-way street - prefrontal
cortex via pathways back to
specialized areas (e.g. visual cortex) instructs the
specialized areas to stay focused and the objects and spatial locations that are being processed in working
memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
182 |
|
Auditory working memory involves auditory processing streams and prefrontal cortex. (similar to the
visual system) Specialized sensory processing
systems and prefrontal cortex may be generally applicable to many systems. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
185 |
|
A central aspect of this executive function is decision-making. |
|
3 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
186 |
|
Prefrontal cortex engages in general-purpose temporary
storage across many
processing domains. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
187 |
|
Temporary storage is carried out by domain-specific
regions in the prefrontal
cortex. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
187 |
|
The various temporary storage areas could work together to integrate information across domains and
constitute a single distributed system. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
187 |
|
Executive function seams to be spread out across multiple
regions of the frontal
cortex. Lateral prefrontal
cortex (working memory) and
anterior cingulate cortex
are anatomically connected,
and both receive inputs from various specialized sensory systems. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
187 |
|
Frontal lobe attention
network - executive aspects
of working memory involve
synaptic interactions between neurons in the lateral
prefrontal cortex, the anterior
cingulate cortex, and perhaps other regions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
188 |
|
Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex are mediated by interconnected circuits spread over several regions of the frontal cortex. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
188 |
|
Prefrontal cortex, like other areas of the neocortex, has six layers. Middle layers
tend to receive inputs
from the other regions, while the deeper layers tend to send outputs to the other regions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
188 |
|
Connections within the prefrontal
cortex, both within and between layers, are far more numerous than the connections coming in from other
areas, such as sensory
processing areas. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
188 |
|
Mutual excitations mediated by the internal connections enable input signals from the outside to be amplified and kept active, and may well contribute to the sustained
activity that has been observed during delay periods. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
189 |
|
Prefrontal cortex receives a rich supply of axons containing dopamine. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
189 |
|
Dopamine cell
bodies are located in the ventral
tegmental area of the brain
stem. Axons of these cells branch extensively into the forebrain where the terminals release dopamine. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
189 |
|
Dopamine receptors located on the spines and shafts of dendrites
of excitatory cells seem to reduce the transfer of
excitation from the dendrites
to the cell bodies, allowing only especially strong excitatory inputs to elicit excitation. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
189 |
|
Dopamine
participates in working memory by biasing cells to mainly respond to strong inputs and thereby focusing attention on active
current goals and away from distracting stimuli. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
190 |
|
Cellular mechanism of working memory - (diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
190 |
|
Dopamine cells in the brain
stem modulate all aspects
of the circuitry in the prefrontal
cortex, enhancing or
facilitating the excitation. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
190 |
|
Extensive excitatory connectivity in the prefrontal cortex, together with its enhancement by dopamine, might underlie the ability of working
memory to hold stimuli as long as the organism
remains engaged in the task. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
190 |
|
Output of motor systems inhibits dopamine cells, suggesting that once behavior is
produced, the facilitation
by dopamine terminates, and working memory is released to
do other things. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
191 |
|
Cognition and consciousness are not the same. While
reading the newspaper in a room with background voices, respond to sound of
your name. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
191 |
|
The stuff we
are conscious of is the stuff working memory is working on. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
191 |
|
Although executive
processes result in conscious content in working memory, it is important to
recognize that some unconscious processes made the result possible. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
192 |
|
Explicit memory - memory to which we have conscious access, can verbally
describe an incident days later. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
192 |
|
Working memory functions are not located in a single region of
prefrontal cortex but are distributed across widespread regions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
192 |
|
There may exist primitive levels of consciousness, especially involving the passive awareness of events as opposed
to the active use of on-line information to guide decision-making and behavior. These kinds of mental states may typify consciousness in
organisms that have less or no prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
192 |
|
Damage to the
human prefrontal cortex disrupts
the conscious retrieval of long-term memories, especially episodic memories. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
192 |
|
Explicit
conscious memory: (1) involvement of medial temporal lobe, (2) conscious of the information at the time of the original experience, (3)
during retrieval, must
transfer the information from cortical storage areas into working memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
193 |
|
Francis Crick
and Christof Koch. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
193 |
|
Primary area
of the visual cortex is not connected with the prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
193 |
|
Binding problem - different features (visual stimulus: shape, color, location,
motion) processed in different cortical areas. To
have a conscious perception of whole object, must be bound together. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
194 |
|
Neural synchrony - coordinated firing of populations of neurons; (1) enhanced
activation of post-synaptic cells, (2) coordination within local areas across
widespread regions. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
194 |
|
Postsynaptic cells are more strongly activated when they receive synchronous inputs from presynaptic cells. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
194 |
|
If the brain
is processing a salient visual
stimulus, cells in the
visual areas will fire
synchronously. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
194 |
|
Neurons that fire together in widespread brain regions are temporarily bound together. This coherence of firing, when combined in just the right way across the brain,
facilitates the representation in working memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
194 |
|
Working memory
theory of consciousness - coherence of firing, when combined in just the right way across the brain,
facilitates the representation in working memory of momentarily relevant information from diverse regions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
195 |
|
Prefrontal cortex is especially well developed in humans, is present in other primates, rudimentary in nonprimate mammals, and doesn't exist in other creatures. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
195 |
|
Other mammals
have medial and ventral prefrontal cortices; primates alone appear to have lateral prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Unique features of primate cognition came with the
development of the lateral
prefrontal region and its integration with existing networks
involving the medial and ventral areas. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Rats are far more limited than primates in their
ability to categorize the world, discriminate among different stimuli and
events, relate or associate things with one another, guide problem-solving
and decision-making. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Temporary storage can be carried out in domain-specific
systems, like sensory or
emotional systems, which accounts for short-term memory in animals such as birds and reptiles. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Domain-specific temporary
storage may allow an awareness of significant
stimuli, like the sight
of a predator, the pain
of being injured, the taste
of food, or the joy of
sex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Sexual impulses are inhibited
in threatening situations. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Brain stem arousal systems underlie vigilance. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Focused attention even in creatures lacking a prefrontal
cortex and its multimodal integrative capacity and
executive functions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
196 |
|
Something akin to human
consciousness would be present in
other animals with well-developed
working memory systems (nonhuman primates) but not
in other creatures. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
197 |
|
Human prefrontal cortex has an important advantage over the prefrontal cortex of
nonhuman primates -- processing module specialized
for language. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
197 |
|
Grammatical natural language that characterizes every human brain, rather than the communicative capacities that exist in other
animals such as chimps and
even parrots. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
197 |
|
In Joseph LeDoux's opinion, structuring of cognition around language confers on the human brain its unique qualities. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
197 |
|
Lacking language and its cognitive
manifestations, nonhuman
primates are unlikely to be able to represent complex
abstract concepts (like
"me" or "mine" or "ours"). |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
197 |
|
Some advanced primates have the ability to visually recognize themselves in a mirror, which
suggests a sense of
self-recognition in the absence of natural language. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
Connections
between prefrontal cortex areas involved in working memory; lateral PFC, anterior cingulate region, orbital region -
(diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
Working memory
is not the function of one region but a complex
interconnected network in the prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
Working memory
region -- lateral
prefrontal cortex, medial
prefrontal cortex (especially the anterior cingulate region), and the ventral prefrontal cortex (especially
the orbital region). |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
The emergence of cognitive capacities underlying language changed the way the brain
works, making it possible for human brains to think and experience events in ways that other brains cannot. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
Language
embellishes working memory
and makes human
consciousness unique. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
198 |
|
Interpretive system in the left
hemisphere gives rise to the unique properties of human consciousness. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
199 |
|
Consciousness,
in the form of working memory, has become an important part of the way LeDoux thinks about emotions, especially feelings. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
203 |
|
Remembered experience is a distortion of actual experience. |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
207 |
|
Information flow to the
Amygdala, (diagram) |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
208 |
|
Present stimuli to the brain
subliminally (unconsciously) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
210 |
|
Limbic system
concept started by Paul MacLean c.1950. |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
210 |
|
Neocortex is a
mammalian specialization. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
211 |
|
No generally accepted criteria for stipulating which areas of the brain belong to the limbic system. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
212 |
|
Fear is the emotion we know
the most about. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
212 |
|
Limbic system theory is
inadequate as an explanation of specific brain circuits. Abandon the limbic
system as an anatomical theory of the emotional brain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
212 |
|
Emotions
involve relatively
primitive circuits that are conserved throughout mammalian evolution. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
213 |
|
Amygdala is at the intersection of the input and output systems of fear. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
214 |
|
Amygdala
contains a dozen or so distinct divisions or areas. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
215 |
|
Contextual conditioning requires the hippocampus as well as the amygdala. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
217 |
|
Amygdala
interacts with the medial prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate and orbital regions). |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
217 |
|
Cognitive functions in prefrontal regions regulate the amygdala
and its fear reactions. |
|
|
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
217 |
|
Prefrontal cortex and amygdala
are reciprocally related. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
217 |
|
Fear and anxiety disorders. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
218 |
|
Invertebrates lack an amygdala; for vertebrates, the amygdala
is responsible for fear
conditioning. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
219 |
|
Direct pathway
from thalamus to amygdala -- Amygdala can undergo emotional learning to stimuli that are never experienced |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
221 |
|
Fear conditioning by the amygdala is an implicit form of learning. |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
221 |
|
Explicit memories established during emotional
situations are often especially vivid and enduring. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
222 |
|
Amygdala connections with hippocampus strengthen the consolidation of
explicit memories. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
223 |
|
Turning stress on - (diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
224 |
|
Amygdala and hippocampus in stress - (diagram) |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
226 |
|
Amygdala connections with working memory circuits, (diagram) |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
226 |
|
Brain stem arousal
systems release modulatory monoamines in
all areas of the prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
227 |
|
Only the latest
stages of sensory processing in the cortex send connections to the amygdala; the amygdala sends connections to all stages. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
228 |
|
Attention and working memory are closely related. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
228 |
|
Amygdala makes
it possible for implicitly
processed stimuli to make their way into working memory and consciousness. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
228 |
|
Amygdala can influence working memory indirectly via cortical arousal; cholinergic, dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
233 |
|
Areas of the amygdala are involved in both fear and sex
circuits. Different areas are involved in sex (medial and posterior nuclei) and fear (lateral and central nuclei). |
|
5 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
234 |
|
Much of who
we are is defined by our emotions. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
235 |
|
Motivation |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
244 |
|
Reticular formation in the brain stem, a region involved in arousal,
alertness, and vigilance. |
|
9 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
245 |
|
Neurons that
make dopamine -- ventral tegmental area of the brain stem. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
245 |
|
VTA neurons project
axons throughout the forebrain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
245 |
|
When dopamine
cells are activated by inputs from the medial forebrain bundle, they release
dopamine widely in the
forebrain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
245 |
|
Dopamine has
long been believed to be a critical factor in reward processes. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
245 |
|
Amphetamine
and cocaine mimic the
action of dopamine. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
246 |
|
Dopamine is
more involved in anticipatory behaviors than in consummatory responses. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
246 |
|
Dopamine is not involved in subjective pleasure. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
246 |
|
Dopamine release is important for the initiation and maintenance of anticipatory behaviors. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
246 |
|
Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area lead to release of dopamine in many
parts of the forebrain. Nucleus
accumbens is particularly germane to reward and
motivation. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
246 |
|
Many effects of dopamine-related drugs can be achieved
by applying the drugs directly to the nucleus accumbens, a region of the striatum located in front of the amygdala near the bottom of the forebrain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Dopamine levels rise in the nucleus accumbens in response to natural rewards (food, water, and
sexual stimuli), and conditioned incentives (stimuli associated with rewards). |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Nucleus accumbens located at the crossroads of emotion and movement. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Dopamine
release in the nucleus accumbens plays a crucial role in motivated or goal-directed behavior. |
|
|
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Nucleus accumbens receives massive dopamine inputs from the tegmentum. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Accumbens
receives inputs from areas
involved in emotional processing such as the amygdala. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Accumbens
projects output to areas
involved in the control of movement (such as the pallidum, an area that connects with
the movement-control regions in the cortex
and brain stem). |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
247 |
|
Today it is widely accepted that
the nucleus accumbens and areas with which it is connected constitute
key elements of a circuit through which emotional
stimuli direct behavior toward
goals. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
248 |
|
Motivational circuitry of the brain,
(diagram) - Dopaminergic
projection from the ventral
tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens is a key feature of the circuitry. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
249 |
|
Animals become active or invigorated when dopamine
is injected into the accumbens. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
249 |
|
Dopamine
facilitates synaptic transmission in the pathway from the accumbens to the pallidum,
which connects with movement-control regions in the cortex
and brain stem. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
249 |
|
With pallidal
output amplified, the motor
regions are strongly
activated, and movement is
initiated. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
249 |
|
Behavior can
potentially be invigorated
by anything that activates
tegmental cells and causes
them to release dopamine in the accumbens. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
250 |
|
Novel stimuli
and conditioned and unconditioned incentives are prime examples of invigorating
stimuli for the tegmental
cells. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
250 |
|
LTP occurs in accumbens circuits. Dopamine facilitates Hebbian plasticity. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
250 |
|
Interactions
between the amygdala and nucleus accumbens contribute to motivation. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
251 |
|
Declarative or explicit learning: initially, both hippocampus and neocortex are involved. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
251 |
|
Motivation circuits include the hippocampus by way of its connections with the amygdala and accumbens. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
251 |
|
Once the hippocampus has slowly taught the neocortex the memory, the memory persists without the aid of the hippocampus. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
251 |
|
Interactions
between the accumbens and amygdala go a long way toward
accounting in neural terms for some of the key aspects of motivation. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
251 |
|
Hippocampus
participates in motivation
via its connections to the amygdala and accumbens. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
252 |
|
Prefrontal cortex receives dopamine inputs, and is connected with the accumbens,
amygdala and hippocampus. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
252 |
|
When motivation is based on decisions, the prefrontal cortex will be involved. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
252 |
|
Decision-making compresses trial-and-error learning experiences into a real-time evaluation of the consequences of a
particular action. It requires on-line integration
of information from diverse
sources: perceptual information about the stimulus,
facts stored in memory, feedback from emotional systems, expectations about
the consequences of different courses of action. This integrative processing is the business of working memory in the prefrontal
cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
252 |
|
Anterior cingulate cortex receives inputs from the dopamine cells in the tegmentum, as well as from the basal amygdala,
ventral pallidum, and
hippocampus. It sends outputs to the accumbens and to the motor cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
253 |
|
Orbital cortex,
an area of the ventral prefrontal cortex, located at the bottom of the frontal
lobe just above the eye
sockets. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
253 |
|
Patients with damage to the orbital
prefrontal region have poor
judgment and often make decisions that lead to socially inappropriate courses of action. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
253 |
|
Emotional information or knowledge normally biases reasoning ability by influencing
attention and working memory processes. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
253 |
|
Lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and orbital prefrontal regions are synaptically interconnected in various ways and should be thought
of not as separate, independent modules, but as components of an integrated working memory system. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
252 |
|
A sophisticated mathematical
analysis suggests that parietal neurons participate in
decision-making. Basically, populations of neurons make decisions in a manner similar to the
way that economists approach the behavior of populations of people: Cell assembliess are able to integrate information about the reward that can expected, given what has been experienced in the past. [Bayesian
inference] |
|
-1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
254 |
|
Parietal neurons participate in decision-making. (Nature article 1999, 400:233-38) |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
255 |
|
Motivation of human behavior in conflict situations - cognitive dissonance. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
256 |
|
Working self --
a central part of one's mental apparatus. Influences perception, attention,
thinking, memory retrieval and storage, and guides action. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
256 |
|
Natural incentives (e.g. hunger,
thirst, sex) |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
256 |
|
Motives are emotionally charged states that
anticipate goal objects. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
256 |
|
Achievement theory |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
258 |
|
Anterior cingulate is involved in resolving motivational
conflicts. |
|
2 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
258 |
|
Overcoming fear or other
emotional states when we need to take an action that goes against our innate
or learned compulsions. (cognitive dissonance?) |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
258 |
|
The mind is an integrated system of synaptic networks devoted to cognitive, emotional, and motivational functions. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
258 |
|
Emotional arousal guides behavior toward or away from the
situation that the emotionally arousing stimulus signifies. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
259 |
|
Much of what humans do is influenced by processes that percolate along outside of awareness. Consciousness
is important, but so are the underlying cognitive,
emotional, and motivational processes that work unconsciously. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
264 |
|
LSD helped
jump start the psychopharmacological industry in the 1950s. |
|
5 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
265 |
|
Indian doctors
discovered in the 1930s
that Rauwolfia could reduce high blood pressure. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
266 |
|
Reserpine
works by reducing dopamine release from presynaptic
terminals. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
266 |
|
Parkinsonism
is associated with a reduction in dopamine. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
266 |
|
Amphetamine (speed) artificially stimulates dopamine
receptors. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
275 |
|
Selective Serotonin Reuptake
Inhibitors (SSRIs) selectively enhance the availability of serotonin. - Prozac - side effects caused by enhancing norepinephrine are
eliminated. |
|
9 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
278 |
|
Stress damages
the hippocampus, shrinking the dendrites and ultimately
to cell death. Cell shrinkage occurs mainly in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. |
|
3 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
279 |
|
Dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus is one of the few regions of the brain that undergoes neurogenesis in an adult. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
283 |
|
Xanax |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
287 |
|
Antianxiety drugs enhance GABA transmission. |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
292 |
|
Lateral prefrontal cortex is the classical working memory area. |
|
5 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
306 |
|
Disconnection syndromes - behavioral or mental consequences resulting from disrupting
communication between brain regions. |
|
14 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
307 |
|
Psychiatric disorders might be best thought of as malconnection rather than disconnection
syndromes. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
307 |
|
Depression
appears to involve alterations in the way circuits in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and amygdala adapt to the consequences of long-term elevations of stress hormones. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
307 |
|
Your brain is assembled during childhood by a combination of genetic and environmental influences. Then through experiences with the
world, your synaptic
connections are adjusted, further distinguishing you from everyone else. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
307 |
|
Synaptic connections are adjusted by neural activity. When these changes
occur during early life they are said to involve developmental plasticity; when they occur later they are considered learning. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
308 |
|
Hebbian plasticity binds simultaneously
active cells together so that the next time the same
or similar stimulus occurs, the same cells and connections will be activated. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
312 |
|
In the middle of the 20th
century researchers discovered a region of the brain stem that is required for alertness and arousal. Damage to this region put animals and people into a comatose state. This area came to be called the
"reticular activating system" or the "reticular
formation." |
|
4 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
312 |
|
Cells that produce modulators are located primarily in the brain stem, but their axons are distributed
throughout the brain. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
312 |
|
The widespread action of modulators makes them especially useful in broadcasting that something significant has happened, but they are less suited to identifying exactly what has happened. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
313 |
|
Emotional or
otherwise significant experiences are the ones we tend to form memories about. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
313 |
|
Modulatory neurotransmitters have a prolonged action compared with fast transmitters like glutamate or GABA. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
313 |
|
The action of glutamate or
GABA is typically concluded
within a matter of milliseconds, whereas modulators can have effects that last for seconds. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
314 |
|
Modulatory chemicals coordinate
parallel plasticity. (diagram) Monoamine cells in the brain
stem send connections to widespread
brain regions and release monoamine during significant events. Although cells in
many regions will simultaneously
be bathed by monoamine release, only active cells will be affected. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
314 |
|
One effect of monoamines is to facilitate plasticity. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
314 |
|
Learning is facilitated in those cells and areas actively processing an event. In this way, plasticity is coordinated
across widespread regions during significant events. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
314 |
|
Different brain regions store different
aspects of an experience Coordination
is important to the unity of our memories. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
314 |
|
The widespread action of modulators increases the likelihood
that when something significant happens, plasticity
will occur in parallel at active synapses in all modules. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
315 |
|
Convergence zones integrate parallel plasticity. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
316 |
|
The ability of working memory to integrate information from various
systems and hold that information temporarily for purposes of performing mental
operations (comparing, contrasting, recognizing) is
a typical bottom-up process. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
316 |
|
The ability of working memory to use the outcome of processing to regulate what we attend to is a typical top-down or executive function. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
317 |
|
Synchrony and modulation influence convergence zones, further increasing
their potential to integrate information. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
317 |
|
Hierarchical organization -- convergence takes place within systems before it takes place between systems. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
317 |
|
Small sets of synaptically connected cells, called ensembles, receive convergent inputs from lower levels in their processing hierarchy, and represent
faces, complex scenes, and other objects of perception. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
317 |
|
Some of the key
convergence zones are the posterior parietal cortex, the parahippocampal region, and areas of the prefrontal cortex. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
318 |
|
Posterior parietal area is important in the cognitive control
of movement in space in nonhuman primates; in humans it is crucially involved in language comprehension in the left hemisphere, and spatial cognition in the right hemisphere. |
|
1 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
318 |
|
Rhinal cortical areas are part of the medial temporal lobe
memory system.
They establish critical links between sensory
areas of the cortex and the hippocampus. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
318 |
|
Hippocampus is
a convergence zone -- rather than integrating inputs from different sensory
systems, per se, it receives inputs from other convergence zones, and is thus something of a super
convergence zone. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
318 |
|
While medial
temporal lobe system forms
memories in a way that allows
them to be consciously accessible, the memories only enter consciousness when they are placed in working memory. |
|
0 |
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
|
|
|
|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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|
| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
|
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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| LeDoux; Synaptic Self |
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