LeDoux - Synaptic Self
Book	Page		Topic
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	2		Synapse, nerve terminal, dendrite
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	8		Amygdala: centerpiece of the defense system. Amygdala determines whether danger is present and, if so, initiates bodily responses that were designed by evolution to deal with danger.		6
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	12		Biological mechanisms by which the brain makes the self.		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	12		Self is created and maintained by arrangements of synaptic connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	20		Minimum self -- immediate consciousness of one's self.		8
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	20		Narrative self -- coherent self-consciousness that extends with past and future stories that we tell about ourselves.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	24		Traditionally, the mind has been viewed as a trilogy, consisting of cognition, emotion, and motivation.		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	27		Many important aspects of human social behavior, including decision-making as well as the way we react to members of racial and ethnic groups, are mediated unconsciously.		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	27		Explicit aspects of the self that we're consciously aware of are referred to by the term "self-aware".		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	27		Implicit aspects of the self are all aspects of the self that are not immediately available to consciousness.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	27		All animals have implicit selves, but only animals that have the capacity for conscious self-awareness have explicit selves.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	28		Personality in a pet does not necessarily mean that the pet is conscious in the human sense.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	28		Most brain systems are plastic and work outside of consciousness; they can be thought of as implicit memory systems.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	28		Our life's experiences contribute to who we are; implicit and explicit memory storage constitute key mechanisms through which the self is formed and maintained.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	28		The way we characteristically walk and talk, the way we think and feel, all reflect the workings of systems that function on the basis of past experience, but their operation takes place outside of awareness.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	29		Self-preservation is a universal motive, independent of whether an organism is aware that it is working toward this goal. A cockroach can scamper away when a human foot approaches without being explicitly aware of danger. Bacteria can detect and move away from harmful molecules in its chemical world.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	29		The self is not static; it is added to and subtracted from by genetic maturation, learning, forgetting, stress, aging, and disease. This is true of both the implicit and explicit aspects of self.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	29		Not all aspects of the self are learned; some are due to our genetic heritage.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	30		Introversion is probably the genetic trait with the strongest genetic influence.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	30		Although many extremely shy, introverted children tend to become anxious, depressed adults, some do just fine.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	30		When extreme introversion is caught early, it can be reversed to some extent by a supportive family environment, suggesting that genes do not fully dictate psychological destiny.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	30		Life's experiences, in the form of learning and memory, shape how one's genotype is expressed.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	30		A person may be shy at work or in social groups, but domineering at home.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	31		The self is the totality of what an organism is physically, biologically, psychologically, socially, and culturally.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	31		The self includes things that we know about ourselves and things that we do not know, things that others know about us that we do not realize.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	31		A variety of different brain systems store information implicitly, allowing for many aspects of the self to coexist.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	43		Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons		12
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	46		Spinal reflex includes sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons in the spinal cord.(diagram)		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	47		Action potential is generated in the initial part of the axon where it connects with the cell body.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	49		Every human brain has billions of neurons that together make trillions of synaptic connections among one another. During wakefulness and during sleep, during thoughtfulness and during boredom -- at any one moment, billions of synapses are active.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	49		Projection neurons have relatively long axons that extend out of the area in which their cell bodies are located.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	49		Interneurons link their short axons to nearby neurons, often projection neurons, and are involved in information processing.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	49		Brain circuits can be thought of as hierarchically arranged circuits linked together by synaptic connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	50		Projection neurons tend to be idle in the absence of inputs. Inhibitory interneurons are often active all the time.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	52		Excitation and inhibition in circuits - (diagram)		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	53		Glutamate is a ubiquitous excitatory transmitter in the brain		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	53		GABA (an amino acid) is a neurotransmitter of inhibitory neurons.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	54		Two major neurotransmitters -- glutamate and GABA; released from different presynaptic neurons, bind to distinct postsynaptic receptors -- glutamate excitatory, GABA inhibitory.  (Diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	55		A neuron receives many excitatory and inhibitory inputs form many other cells; the likelihood of firing at any one moment depends on the net balance between excitation and inhibition across all of the inputs at that particular time.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	56		Antianxiety drugs such as Valium work by enhancing GABA's natural ability to regulate glutamate.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	57		Glutamate and GABA are fast-acting; they cause an electrical change in the postsynaptic cell within milliseconds of being released from the presynaptic terminal, and their effect is over in a matter of milliseconds.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	57		Neurotransmitters acting as modulators have slower and longer-lasting effects		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	57		Consider three classes of modulators -- peptides, amines, and hormones. Each can have excitatory or inhibitory effects, depending on the specifics of their participation in functional circuits.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	57		Peptides represent a large class of slow-acting modulatory substances found throughout the brain. Made up of many amino acids, and are larger molecules than simple amino acids like glutamate and GABA.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Peptides typically have slow modulatory actions. They can dramatically affect the ability of a cell to be fired by other inputs, but cannot do so with precise timing.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		"Jogger's high" is said to be an opiate effect.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Monoamines are a class of modulators that include substances such as serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Cells that produce monoamines are found in only a few areas, mostly in the brain stem.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Monoamines achieve their effects by facilitating or inhibiting the actions of glutamate or GABA.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Many drugs used in the treatment of psychiatric disorders work by altering monoamines.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Prozac prevents the removal of serotonin from the synaptic space.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	58		Amines are targets of recreational drugs -- cocaine and amphetamine affect norepinephrine and dopamine levels, while LSD acts on serotonin receptors.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	59		Diffuse projections of brain stem monoamine cells to forebrain areas - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	59		Hormones are a class of modulators released from body organs such as the adrenal, pituitary, or sex glands.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	60		Hormones influence the brain - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	61		Gap junctions, synchronizing hippocampal GABA cells.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	62		Amygdala connected to sensory processing systems and to motor control regions - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	64		Prozac may reduce exaggerated fear and anxiety in psychiatric disorders by enhancing the ability of serotonin to facilitate GABA inhibition.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	64		Fear system illustrates the basic elements of neural transmission in the brain and its regulation by modulatory chemicals.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	64		Rate at which a cell fires spontaneously is a function of certain electrical and chemical characteristics of the cell.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	64		Cell's intrinsic properties, which may have a strong genetic component, will greatly influence everything a cell does.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	64		Synapses are ultimately the key to the brain's many functions, and thus to the self.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	65		Brain development is the major battlefield of the nature-nurture conflict.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	65		Mental and behavioral characteristics are functions of the brain, and synaptically connected circuits underlie brain functions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	66		Shaping of synaptic connections in early life by genes and experience.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	67		Brain development begins in the ectoderm, which, together with the mesoderm and endoderm, make up the three major parts of the embryo.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	67		In humans, the vast majority of neurons are made in the months just prior to birth. At peak production, about 250k neurons are generated per minute.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	67		Neuron production process is controlled by hormones that diffuse up into the neural tube from underlying tissues and turn on genes that make proteins.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Synapses change dramatically in early life.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Homeotic genes make proteins that control the placement of cells, providing boundaries that guide and restrict cell movement.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Autism might be due to a mutation of homeotic genes that leads to faulty brain construction and connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Function of homeotic genes was discovered in studies of fruit flies.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Homeotic genes have been preserved through many levels of evolutionary history.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Projection and interneurons come to differ.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Chemical factors in the local environment determine the ultimate type of cell that will be expressed.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Once a cell's type is determined, its fate is sealed.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Cell type is not rigidly dictated by genes and is strongly influenced by the environment.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Local cues involved are proteins that have been genetically coded.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	68		Cells have to migrate out from their segregated place to reach their final destinations in the growing brain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	69		Development of the cortex involves the building of scaffolds or chemical trails that migrating cells follow.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	69		Glial cells are guided by local chemical cues, made by genes and their by-products, that serve a molecular signposts, creating barriers that restrict movement and providing adhesive surfaces.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	69		Cell migration across the glial trail (diagram)		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	70		Crawling along the glial trail, the young neurons find their way to their target.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	70		Neurons reach their destinations, sprout axons, find their way to their targets, then form synapses. Their pathfinding depends on growth cones.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	71		Growth cone pathfinding (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	72		Between 50 and 70 percent of all genes in the human body are in the brain.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	72		Neural activity, both intrinsic prenatal and environmental stimulated postnatal, selects from the initial set of intrinsically established synaptic connections to form the mature neural network.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	72		Selectionist ideas originated in evolutionary (Darwinian) biology, were adopted and adapted by the field of immunology, and were then applied to brain function.  [Edelman]		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		History of biology is filled with instances of instructional ideas giving way to selectionist ones.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Immunology -- foreign antigens select precursor molecules from a preexisting pool that can be assembled into a large number of antibodies.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Jean-Pierre Changeux, neural activity does not create novel connections, but rather, contributes to the elimination of pre-existing ones.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Neural selectionism, Gerald Edelman, Nobel Prize for work on immune system; Neural Darwinism; synapses that are used and compete successfully and survive, while those that are not used perish.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Gerald Edelman; pattern of neural circuitry is neither established nor rearranged instructively in response to external influences.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		External influences select synapses by initiating and reinforcing certain patterns of neural activity that involve them.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Genetic and nongenetic factors interact at each step of brain development.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Selection operates on preexisting connections set up by genes.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		Establishing the initial connections, much randomness -- axon terminals and dendrites that happen to be in the same vicinity, form synaptic connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	73		In spite of a general genetically programmed plan, the preexisting connections upon which selection ultimately operates also have a unique individualistic nature, from which experience then does the selecting.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	74		Genes dictate that we will all have a human kind of brain with roughly the same kinds of circuits, but random individual differences will exist, and the connectivity of the circuits, selected by synaptic activity, will shape the individual brain.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	74		The "self" is not constructed, it is selected from preexisting possibilities.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	74		Synaptic regression -- pruning back of exuberant, unused projections during early development.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	74		Cognitive development is close to completion by puberty.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	74		The greatest number of synapses are present at around 24 months of age.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	75		Synaptic activity prevents cell death. (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	75		Activity only prevents the elimination of synapses --  "use it or lose it."		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	76		Neocortical areas have six layers.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	77		Neural Activity leads to an increase in synaptic complexity.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	77		Neural activity can induce the formation of new synaptic connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	78		Activity helps define the demarcation between areas of the cortex. Axons from the visual thalamus spread into the auditory cortex area, and vice versa, early in life. As development proceeds, the stray connections are pruned back.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	78		Activity does not produce wholesale rewiring of the brain, instead it makes relatively minor adjustments that make individual brains different.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	79		Donald Hebb, 1949, 'Cells that fire together wire together'		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	81		NMDA receptors		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	81		Neurotrophins - promote survival and growth of neurons. Neurotrophins released from postsynaptic cell, diffuse backward, taken up by presynaptic terminals; branch and sprout new synaptic connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	83		Noam Chomsky; natural language is unique to humans; a universal grammar encoded in the human genome; certain psychological capacities are innate.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	84		Evolutionary psychology - natural selection of mental functions.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	89		Subcortical circuits are more likely to be hardwired than cortical ones.		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	89		Perception of facial expressions of emotion is performed by a species-specific face perception module.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	94		Special times for learning - critical or sensitive periods - narrow time span in early life - learn a second language after puberty.		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	96		Learning is a lifelong process - early years are crucial - foundation for subsequent learning - extensive plasticity in early life -- synapses do not stop changing.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	97		Explicit or Declarative memory		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	98		Implicit or Nondeclarative memory		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	98		Engram -- neural representation of a memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	98		In 1904,Richard Semon, a German scientist, coined the term engram to refer to the neural representation of a memory		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	99		Karl Lashley, an American psychologist, spent much of his career searching for the engram. The result:  Memories are stored in a widely distributed fashion in the cortex.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	99		HM had surgery to control epilepsy, both medial temporal lobes removed 1953, extensively studied aftermath		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	102		Long-term memory - Explicit, Implicit		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	102		Explicit memory - Facts, Experiences		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	102		Implicit memory - Conditioning, Skills, Priming, Other		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	102		Declarative memory - medial temporal lobe, hippocampus, parahippocampal (rhinal) areas		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	102		Procedural memory		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	104		Reciprocal connections between hippocampus and neocortex, long-term storage of memories.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	104		Rhinal areas, convergence zones, integrate information across sensory modalities, mental representations go beyond perceptions to become conceptions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	105		Hippocampus receives inputs from several convergence zones in the rhinal region; it can be thought of as a superconvergence zone.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	105		Rhinal cortical areas and hippocampus are convergence zones, regions that receive and integrate inputs from diverse regions. - (diagram)		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	106		Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for depression, a procedure that often produces memory disturbances as a side effect.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	106		Tend to remember recently learned things better than older ones.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	106		Graded effect of retrograde amnesia, role of hippocampus changes over time, hippocampus is needed for memory storage initially, but its role decreases as time goes by.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	107		Hippocampus affects recent memories, but not old ones that have been consolidated in the cortex.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	107		Old memories are the result of accumulations of synaptic changes in the cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	107		Memory consolidation during sleep.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	107		During sleep, neural patterns repeated in the hippocampus, dreaming about the event.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	107		Hippocampal playback during sleep is read and used by the cortex?		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	110		Only some kinds of memory depend on the hippocampus. If conscious retrieval is required, the hippocampus tends to be involved.		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	111		Hippocampus is involved in human explicit memory.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	111		Sensory information comes into the hippocampus from the neocortex via parahippocampal areas. Memories are established in the neocortex via reverse connections.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	113		Hippocampus slowly feeds new memories to the cortex during sleep.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	115		Hippocampus is involved in both the semantic and episodic aspects of declarative memory.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	116		Explicit memories - things we were once aware of.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	116		Implicit memories are reflected more in things we do rather than in things we know.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	117		Explicit memory is mediated in the medial temporal lobe.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	121		Amygdala contains a dozen or so distinct divisions or areas; relatively few are important for fear conditioning.		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	121		Lateral nucleus of amygdala is the input zone, receiving information from the various senses.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	121		Lateral nucleus has connections with most of the other amygdala regions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	122		Central nucleus of the amygdala is the output zone, connections with networks that control body physiology.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	123		Low road and high road to fear - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	124		Lateral nucleus of amygdala is a key site of plasticity during fear learning.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	130		Hippocampal damage does not disrupt normal conscious awareness.		6
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	132		Hippocampus is synaptically connected in such a way that its activity is available to brain systems that mediate conscious awareness.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	133		Emotional arousal makes any memory stronger.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	133		Memory is more than just what we can recall.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	133		In Alzheimer's disease, the hippocampus and related areas are the first to be destroyed.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	133		Memories are distributed across many brain systems and many are not available to you consciously.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	136		Hebbian plasticity		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	137		John Eccles - synaptic transmission, memory involves synapses.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	137		Synaptic plasticity		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	138		Habituation -- repeated stimulus leads to weaker response.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	139		Long Term Potentiation (LTP), 1973, changes in the efficiency of synaptic transmission, memory		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	144		Glutamate receptors, several types including: AMPA receptor - regular synaptic transmission; NMDA receptor - synaptic plasticity.		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	160		Classical conditioning as Hebbian plasticity - (diagram)		16
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	174		The cognitive revolution of the 20th century emphasized thinking and related cognitive processes at the expense of emotion and motivation.  However it is important to understand that thinking cannot be fully comprehended if emotions and motivation are ignored.		14
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	175		Working memory is one of the brain's most sophisticated capacities and is involved in all aspects of thinking and problem-solving.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	176		Verbal systems are mainly present in the human brain, whereas nonverbal systems are present in all brains.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	176		Working memory is temporary; its contents have to be constantly updated, but it depends on long-term memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		Remembering is an imaginative construction, built on a whole active mass of past experiences.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		When we face a problem, we draw upon mental schemata, organized bundles of stored knowledge.  [a kind of FAP, perhaps?]		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		Can only keep a few things active in our minds (in working memory) at once - seven pieces of information.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		Expand working memory capacity by chunking or grouping information - seven letters, seven words, seven ideas.  [a kind of FAP, perhaps?]		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		One reason human cognition is so powerful is because we have language in our brains, which exponentially increases the ability to categorize information.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	177		Working memory is more than just an area for temporary storage. Thinking involves juggling of mental items - comparing, contrasting, judging, predicting. Executive functions of working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	178		Executive is involved in scheduling the sequence of steps in a complex task.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	179		Frontal lobes are involved in executive functions (planning, problem-solving, behavioral control), as well as in short-term or temporary memory.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	179		Frontal lobes account for about one-third of the mass of the human brain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	179		All mammals have frontal cortex, but for most, its main job is movement control.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	179		Working memory can process information from diverse sources, allowing the information to be compared, contrasted, integrated, and otherwise cognitively manipulated by executive functions. Working memory must be able to store the information temporarily.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	180		Prefrontal neurons, delayed response tasks, temporary storage, cells active during delay periods, retain information during delay period.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	180		Prefrontal cortex is a convergence zone; receives connections from various specialized regions (visual, auditory, etc.); receives connections from hippocampus and other cortical areas involved in long-term explicit memory; retrieve stored information.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	180		Prefrontal cortex sends connections to areas involved in movement control (frontal cortex and subcortical regions), allowing executive decisions to be converted into voluntary actions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	180		Studies of [a kind of FAP, perhaps?], combined with the vast amount of knowledge about anatomical connections and functions of the visual system, have helped construct a fairly detailed understanding of the synaptic connections underlying working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	181		Working memory is mediated by neural networks in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	181		Pathways of visual processing in the cortex. Two broad aspects: (1) "what" and (2) "where".		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	181		"What" pathway is involved in object recognition.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	181		"Where" pathway is involved in figuring out the spatial location of that object relative to other stimuli in the outside world.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	181		"What" pathway involves a processing stream that travels from the primary visual cortex to the temporal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		"Where" pathway goes from the primary cortex to the parietal cortex, then an end stage in the prefrontal cortex.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		"What" area in the temporal cortex is also connected with the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		Maintenance of visual information in working memory; pathways between specialized areas (e.g. visual cortex) and the prefrontal region.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		Pathways from specialized cortical areas tell prefrontal cortex "what" is there and "where" it is located.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		Two-way street - prefrontal cortex via pathways back to specialized areas (e.g. visual cortex) instructs the specialized areas to stay focused and the objects and spatial locations that are being processed in working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	182		Auditory working memory involves auditory processing streams and prefrontal cortex. (similar to the visual system) Specialized sensory processing systems and prefrontal cortex may be generally applicable to many systems.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	185		A central aspect of this executive function is decision-making.		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	186		Prefrontal cortex engages in general-purpose temporary storage across many processing domains.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	187		Temporary storage is carried out by domain-specific regions in the prefrontal cortex.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	187		The various temporary storage areas could work together to integrate information across domains and constitute a single distributed system.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	187		Executive function seams to be spread out across multiple regions of the frontal cortex. Lateral prefrontal cortex (working memory) and anterior cingulate cortex are anatomically connected, and both receive inputs from various specialized sensory systems.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	187		Frontal lobe attention network - executive aspects of working memory involve synaptic interactions between neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and perhaps other regions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	188		Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex are mediated by interconnected circuits spread over several regions of the frontal cortex.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	188		Prefrontal cortex, like other areas of the neocortex, has six layers.  Middle layers tend to receive inputs from the other regions, while the deeper layers tend to send outputs to the other regions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	188		Connections within the prefrontal cortex, both within and between layers, are far more numerous than the connections coming in from other areas, such as sensory processing areas.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	188		Mutual excitations mediated by the internal connections enable input signals from the outside to be amplified and kept active, and may well contribute to the sustained activity that has been observed during delay periods.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	189		Prefrontal cortex receives a rich supply of axons containing dopamine.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	189		Dopamine cell bodies are located in the ventral tegmental area of the brain stem. Axons of these cells branch extensively into the forebrain where the terminals release dopamine.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	189		Dopamine receptors located on the spines and shafts of dendrites of excitatory cells seem to reduce the transfer of excitation from the dendrites to the cell bodies, allowing only especially strong excitatory inputs to elicit excitation.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	189		Dopamine participates in working memory by biasing cells to mainly respond to strong inputs and thereby focusing attention on active current goals and away from distracting stimuli.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	190		Cellular mechanism of working memory - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	190		Dopamine cells in the brain stem modulate all aspects of the circuitry in the prefrontal cortex, enhancing or facilitating the excitation.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	190		Extensive excitatory connectivity in the prefrontal cortex, together with its enhancement by dopamine, might underlie the ability of working memory to hold stimuli as long as the organism remains engaged in the task.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	190		Output of motor systems inhibits dopamine cells, suggesting that once behavior is produced, the facilitation by dopamine terminates, and working memory is released to do other things.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	191		Cognition and consciousness are not the same. While reading the newspaper in a room with background voices, respond to sound of your name.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	191		The stuff we are conscious of is the stuff working memory is working on.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	191		Although executive processes result in conscious content in working memory, it is important to recognize that some unconscious processes made the result possible.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	192		Explicit memory - memory to which we have conscious access, can verbally describe an incident days later.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	192		Working memory functions are not located in a single region of prefrontal cortex but are distributed across widespread regions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	192		There may exist primitive levels of consciousness, especially involving the passive awareness of events as opposed to the active use of on-line information to guide decision-making and behavior. These kinds of mental states may typify consciousness in organisms that have less or no prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	192		Damage to the human prefrontal cortex disrupts the conscious retrieval of long-term memories, especially episodic memories.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	192		Explicit conscious memory: (1) involvement of medial temporal lobe, (2) conscious of the information at the time of the original experience, (3) during retrieval, must transfer the information from cortical storage areas into working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	193		Francis Crick and Christof Koch.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	193		Primary area of the visual cortex is not connected with the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	193		Binding problem - different features (visual stimulus: shape, color, location, motion) processed in different cortical areas. To have a conscious perception of whole object, must be bound together.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	194		Neural synchrony - coordinated firing of populations of neurons; (1) enhanced activation of post-synaptic cells, (2) coordination within local areas across widespread regions.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	194		Postsynaptic cells are more strongly activated when they receive synchronous inputs from presynaptic cells.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	194		If the brain is processing a salient visual stimulus, cells in the visual areas will fire synchronously.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	194		Neurons that fire together in widespread brain regions are temporarily bound together. This coherence of firing, when combined in just the right way across the brain, facilitates the representation in working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	194		Working memory theory of consciousness - coherence of firing, when combined in just the right way across the brain, facilitates the representation in working memory of momentarily relevant information from diverse regions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	195		Prefrontal cortex is especially well developed in humans, is present in other primates, rudimentary in nonprimate mammals, and doesn't exist in other creatures.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	195		Other mammals have medial and ventral prefrontal cortices; primates alone appear to have lateral prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Unique features of primate cognition came with the development of the lateral prefrontal region and its integration with existing networks involving the medial and ventral areas.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Rats are far more limited than primates in their ability to categorize the world, discriminate among different stimuli and events, relate or associate things with one another, guide problem-solving and decision-making.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Temporary storage can be carried out in domain-specific systems, like sensory or emotional systems, which accounts for short-term memory in animals such as birds and reptiles.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Domain-specific temporary storage may allow an awareness of significant stimuli, like the sight of a predator, the pain of being injured, the taste of food, or the joy of sex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Sexual impulses are inhibited in threatening situations.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Brain stem arousal systems underlie vigilance.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Focused attention even in creatures lacking a prefrontal cortex and its multimodal integrative capacity and executive functions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	196		Something akin to human consciousness would be present in other animals with well-developed working memory systems (nonhuman primates) but not in other creatures.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	197		Human prefrontal cortex has an important advantage over the prefrontal cortex of nonhuman primates -- processing module specialized for language.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	197		Grammatical natural language that characterizes every human brain, rather than the communicative capacities that exist in other animals such as chimps and even parrots.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	197		In Joseph LeDoux's opinion, structuring of cognition around language confers on the human brain its unique qualities.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	197		Lacking language and its cognitive manifestations, nonhuman primates are unlikely to be able to represent complex abstract concepts (like "me" or "mine" or "ours").		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	197		Some advanced primates have the ability to visually recognize themselves in a mirror, which suggests a sense of self-recognition in the absence of natural language.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		Connections between prefrontal cortex areas involved in working memory; lateral PFC, anterior cingulate region, orbital region - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		Working memory is not the function of one region but a complex interconnected network in the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		Working memory region -- lateral prefrontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex (especially the anterior cingulate region), and the ventral prefrontal cortex (especially the orbital region).		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		The emergence of cognitive capacities underlying language changed the way the brain works, making it possible for human brains to think and experience events in ways that other brains cannot.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		Language embellishes working memory and makes human consciousness unique.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	198		Interpretive system in the left hemisphere gives rise to the unique properties of human consciousness.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	199		Consciousness, in the form of working memory, has become an important part of the way LeDoux thinks about emotions, especially feelings.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	203		Remembered experience is a distortion of actual experience.		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	207		Information flow to the Amygdala, (diagram)		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	208		Present stimuli to the brain subliminally (unconsciously)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	210		Limbic system concept started by Paul MacLean c.1950.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	210		Neocortex is a mammalian specialization.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	211		No generally accepted criteria for stipulating which areas of the brain belong to the limbic system.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	212		Fear is the emotion we know the most about.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	212		Limbic system theory is inadequate as an explanation of specific brain circuits. Abandon the limbic system as an anatomical theory of the emotional brain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	212		Emotions involve relatively primitive circuits that are conserved throughout mammalian evolution.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	213		Amygdala is at the intersection of the input and output systems of fear.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	214		Amygdala contains a dozen or so distinct divisions or areas.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	215		Contextual conditioning requires the hippocampus as well as the amygdala.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	217		Amygdala interacts with the medial prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate and orbital regions).		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	217		Cognitive functions in prefrontal regions regulate the amygdala and its fear reactions.
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	217		Prefrontal cortex and amygdala are reciprocally related.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	217		Fear and anxiety disorders.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	218		Invertebrates lack an amygdala; for vertebrates, the amygdala is responsible for fear conditioning.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	219		Direct pathway from thalamus to amygdala -- Amygdala can undergo emotional learning to stimuli that are never experienced		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	221		Fear conditioning by the amygdala is an implicit form of learning.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	221		Explicit memories established during emotional situations are often especially vivid and enduring.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	222		Amygdala connections with hippocampus strengthen the consolidation of explicit memories.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	223		Turning stress on - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	224		Amygdala and hippocampus in stress - (diagram)		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	226		Amygdala connections with working memory circuits, (diagram)		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	226		Brain stem arousal systems release modulatory monoamines in all areas of the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	227		Only the latest stages of sensory processing in the cortex send connections to the amygdala; the amygdala sends connections to all stages.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	228		Attention and working memory are closely related.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	228		Amygdala makes it possible for implicitly processed stimuli to make their way into working memory and consciousness.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	228		Amygdala can influence working memory indirectly via cortical arousal; cholinergic, dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	233		Areas of the amygdala are involved in both fear and sex circuits. Different areas are involved in sex (medial and posterior nuclei) and fear (lateral and central nuclei).		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	234		Much of who we are is defined by our emotions.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	235		Motivation		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	244		Reticular formation in the brain stem, a region involved in arousal, alertness, and vigilance.		9
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	245		Neurons that make dopamine -- ventral tegmental area of the brain stem.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	245		VTA neurons project axons throughout the forebrain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	245		When dopamine cells are activated by inputs from the medial forebrain bundle, they release dopamine widely in the forebrain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	245		Dopamine has long been believed to be a critical factor in reward processes.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	245		Amphetamine and cocaine mimic the action of dopamine.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	246		Dopamine is more involved in anticipatory behaviors than in consummatory responses.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	246		Dopamine is not involved in subjective pleasure.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	246		Dopamine release is important for the initiation and maintenance of anticipatory behaviors.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	246		Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area lead to release of dopamine in many parts of the forebrain. Nucleus accumbens is particularly germane to reward and motivation.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	246		Many effects of dopamine-related drugs can be achieved by applying the drugs directly to the nucleus accumbens, a region of the striatum located in front of the amygdala near the bottom of the forebrain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Dopamine levels rise in the nucleus accumbens in response to natural rewards (food, water, and sexual stimuli), and conditioned incentives (stimuli associated with rewards).		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Nucleus accumbens located at the crossroads of emotion and movement.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens plays a crucial role in motivated or goal-directed behavior.
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Nucleus accumbens receives massive dopamine inputs from the tegmentum.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Accumbens receives inputs from areas involved in emotional processing such as the amygdala.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Accumbens projects output to areas involved in the control of movement (such as the pallidum, an area that connects with the movement-control regions in the cortex and brain stem).		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	247		Today it is widely accepted that the nucleus accumbens and areas with which it is connected constitute key elements of a circuit through which emotional stimuli direct behavior toward goals.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	248		Motivational circuitry of the brain, (diagram) - Dopaminergic projection from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens is a key feature of the circuitry.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	249		Animals become active or invigorated when dopamine is injected into the accumbens.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	249		Dopamine facilitates synaptic transmission in the pathway from the accumbens to the pallidum, which connects with movement-control regions in the cortex and brain stem.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	249		With pallidal output amplified, the motor regions are strongly activated, and movement is initiated.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	249		Behavior can potentially be invigorated by anything that activates tegmental cells and causes them to release dopamine in the accumbens.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	250		Novel stimuli and conditioned and unconditioned incentives are prime examples of invigorating stimuli for the tegmental cells.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	250		LTP occurs in accumbens circuits. Dopamine facilitates Hebbian plasticity.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	250		Interactions between the amygdala and nucleus accumbens contribute to motivation.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	251		Declarative or explicit learning: initially, both hippocampus and neocortex are involved.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	251		Motivation circuits include the hippocampus by way of its connections with the amygdala and accumbens.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	251		Once the hippocampus has slowly taught the neocortex the memory, the memory persists without the aid of the hippocampus.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	251		Interactions between the accumbens and amygdala go a long way toward accounting in neural terms for some of the key aspects of motivation.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	251		Hippocampus participates in motivation via its connections to the amygdala and accumbens.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	252		Prefrontal cortex receives dopamine inputs, and is connected with the accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	252		When motivation is based on decisions, the prefrontal cortex will be involved.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	252		Decision-making compresses trial-and-error learning experiences into a real-time evaluation of the consequences of a particular action. It requires on-line integration of information from diverse sources: perceptual information about the stimulus, facts stored in memory, feedback from emotional systems, expectations about the consequences of different courses of action. This integrative processing is the business of working memory in the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	252		Anterior cingulate cortex receives inputs from the dopamine cells in the tegmentum, as well as from the basal amygdala, ventral pallidum, and hippocampus. It sends outputs to the accumbens and to the motor cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	253		Orbital cortex, an area of the ventral prefrontal cortex, located at the bottom of the frontal lobe just above the eye sockets.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	253		Patients with damage to the orbital prefrontal region have poor judgment and often make decisions that lead to socially inappropriate courses of action.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	253		Emotional information or knowledge normally biases reasoning ability by influencing attention and working memory processes.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	253		Lateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and orbital prefrontal regions are synaptically interconnected in various ways and should be thought of not as separate, independent modules, but as components of an integrated working memory system.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	252		A sophisticated mathematical analysis suggests that parietal neurons participate in decision-making. Basically, populations of neurons make decisions in a manner similar to the way that economists approach the behavior of populations of people: Cell assembliess are able to integrate information about the reward that can expected, given what has been experienced in the past.  [Bayesian inference]		-1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	254		Parietal neurons participate in decision-making. (Nature article 1999, 400:233-38)		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	255		Motivation of human behavior in conflict situations - cognitive dissonance.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	256		Working self -- a central part of one's mental apparatus. Influences perception, attention, thinking, memory retrieval and storage, and guides action.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	256		Natural incentives (e.g. hunger, thirst, sex)		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	256		Motives are emotionally charged states that anticipate goal objects.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	256		Achievement theory		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	258		Anterior cingulate is involved in resolving motivational conflicts.		2
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	258		Overcoming fear or other emotional states when we need to take an action that goes against our innate or learned compulsions. (cognitive dissonance?)		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	258		The mind is an integrated system of synaptic networks devoted to cognitive, emotional, and motivational functions.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	258		Emotional arousal guides behavior toward or away from the situation that the emotionally arousing stimulus signifies.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	259		Much of what humans do is influenced by processes that percolate along outside of awareness. Consciousness is important, but so are the underlying cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes that work unconsciously.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	264		LSD helped jump start the psychopharmacological industry in the 1950s.		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	265		Indian doctors discovered in the 1930s that Rauwolfia could reduce high blood pressure.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	266		Reserpine works by reducing dopamine release from presynaptic terminals.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	266		Parkinsonism is associated with a reduction in dopamine.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	266		Amphetamine (speed) artificially stimulates dopamine receptors.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	275		Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) selectively enhance the availability of serotonin. - Prozac - side effects caused by enhancing norepinephrine are eliminated.		9
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	278		Stress damages the hippocampus, shrinking the dendrites and ultimately to cell death. Cell shrinkage occurs mainly in the CA3 region of the hippocampus.		3
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	279		Dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus is one of the few regions of the brain that undergoes neurogenesis in an adult.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	283		Xanax		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	287		Antianxiety drugs enhance GABA transmission.		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	292		Lateral prefrontal cortex is the classical working memory area.		5
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	306		Disconnection syndromes - behavioral or mental consequences resulting from disrupting communication between brain regions.		14
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	307		Psychiatric disorders might be best thought of as malconnection rather than disconnection syndromes.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	307		Depression appears to involve alterations in the way circuits in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and amygdala adapt to the consequences of long-term elevations of stress hormones.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	307		Your brain is assembled during childhood by a combination of genetic and environmental influences.  Then through experiences with the world, your synaptic connections are adjusted, further distinguishing you from everyone else.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	307		Synaptic connections are adjusted by neural activity.  When these changes occur during early life they are said to involve developmental plasticity; when they occur later they are considered learning.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	308		Hebbian plasticity binds simultaneously active cells together so that the next time the same or similar stimulus occurs, the same cells and connections will be activated.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	312		In the middle of the 20th century researchers discovered a region of the brain stem that is required for alertness and arousal.  Damage to this region put animals and people into a comatose state.  This area came to be called the "reticular activating system" or the "reticular formation."		4
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	312		Cells that produce modulators are located primarily in the brain stem, but their axons are distributed throughout the brain.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	312		The widespread action of modulators makes them especially useful in broadcasting that something significant has happened, but they are less suited to identifying exactly what has happened.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	313		Emotional or otherwise significant experiences are the ones we tend to form memories about.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	313		Modulatory neurotransmitters have a prolonged action compared with fast transmitters like glutamate or GABA.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	313		The action of glutamate or GABA is typically concluded within a matter of milliseconds, whereas modulators can have effects that last for seconds.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	314		Modulatory chemicals coordinate parallel plasticity. (diagram) Monoamine cells in the brain stem send connections to widespread brain regions and release monoamine during significant events.  Although cells in many regions will simultaneously be bathed by monoamine release, only active cells will be affected.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	314		One effect of monoamines is to facilitate plasticity.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	314		Learning is facilitated in those cells and areas actively processing an event.  In this way, plasticity is coordinated across widespread regions during significant events.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	314		Different brain regions store different aspects of an experience  Coordination is important to the unity of our memories.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	314		The widespread action of modulators increases the likelihood that when something significant happens, plasticity will occur in parallel at active synapses in all modules.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	315		Convergence zones integrate parallel plasticity.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	316		The ability of working memory to integrate information from various systems and hold that information temporarily for purposes of performing mental operations (comparing, contrasting, recognizing) is a typical bottom-up process.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	316		The ability of working memory to use the outcome of processing to regulate what we attend to is a typical top-down or executive function.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	317		Synchrony and modulation influence convergence zones, further increasing their potential to integrate information.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	317		Hierarchical organization -- convergence takes place within systems before it takes place between systems.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	317		Small sets of synaptically connected cells, called ensembles, receive convergent inputs from lower levels in their processing hierarchy, and represent faces, complex scenes, and other objects of perception.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	317		Some of the key convergence zones are the posterior parietal cortex, the parahippocampal region, and areas of the prefrontal cortex.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	318		Posterior parietal area is important in the cognitive control of movement in space in nonhuman primates; in humans it is crucially involved in language comprehension in the left hemisphere, and spatial cognition in the right hemisphere.		1
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	318		Rhinal cortical areas are part of the medial temporal lobe memory system.  They establish critical links between sensory areas of the cortex and the hippocampus.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	318		Hippocampus is a convergence zone -- rather than integrating inputs from different sensory systems, per se, it receives inputs from other convergence zones, and is thus something of a super convergence zone.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self	318		While medial temporal lobe system forms memories in a way that allows them to be consciously accessible, the memories only enter consciousness when they are placed in working memory.		0
LeDoux; Synaptic Self