Parasuraman, editor; Attentive Brain
Chapter	Page		Topic
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	3		Three components of attention: (1) selection, (2) vigilance, (3) control. All three aspects maintain goal-directed behavior in a context of multiple, competing distractions.
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	5		Diversity of attentional functions has been discussed since at least the time of William James (1890). James distinguished between (1) sensory attention driven by environmental events and (2) voluntary attention to both external stimuli and to internal thoughts.		2
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		Many functions of attention are carried out by different, though interacting, neural systems in the brain.		1
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		Many brain processes run automatically and are influenced by attention slightly or not at all.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		Automatic processes may summon attention, as in the case of the response to the sudden onset of a peripheral stimulus, but they can also operate outside awareness.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		Attention serves the goals of (1) accurate and speedy perception and action, (2) maintenance of processing over time.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		An organism's goals are determined not only by the environment but by the organism's internal dispositions, both temporary and enduring. This is presumably what links attention to motivation and emotion.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		A critically important component of attention is selection, which is perhaps the most widely studied area.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		Selectivity of processing is required because of the computational limitations imposed by fully parallel processing of all sources.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	6		The large receptive field of neurons in higher perceptual processing areas results in a computational limitation. The primate brain presumably evolved mechanisms of selective attention to cope with that limitation.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	7		Vigilance—or sustained attention—ensures that goals are maintained over time.		1
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	7		Attentional control -- information-processing activity may need to be temporarily stopped (to respond to some other important activity) and then resumed; there may be other concurrent activities; and the future course of all such activities must be coordinated.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	8		Cognitive neuroscience represents the merger of cognitive psychology and neuroscience.		1
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	9		Broca's area lies adjacent to the area of motor cortex that controls the vocal musculature, and Wernicke's area is situated close to the primary auditory cortex.		1
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	9		Language is based on adaptations of brain areas in early humans who were preliterate and for whom language was primarily spoken (Broca's area) and heard (Wernicke's area), rather than written and read.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	11		Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) have clearly shown that selective attention modulates early-latency ERP components, both in the visual and in the auditory modality.		2
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	11		Early selection occurs as early as about 50 ms after stimulus onset and involves modulation of brain electrical activity in sensory-specific cortical areas in a manner consistent with a sensory gain-control mechanism.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	12		Attention a cause or an effect? Whether there exist (1) attentional systems that are separate from other sensory and motor systems in the brain, or whether (2) attention represents an emergent property of other processing activities.		1
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	12		Functional brain-imaging studies have provided clear evidence for attentional effects in many parts of the brain.		0
Parasuraman; Attentive Brain	12		Anterior cingulate gyrus of the frontal lobe plays a key role in attentional control and is therefore one of the brain areas that act as the causal source. (Posner, 1995)		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	22		Cortical Processing Streams for Object Vision and Spatial Vision		10
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	22		First principle of cortical visual organization: Two major corticocortical pathways, each beginning with primary visual cortex. (1) Ventral pathway is directed into the inferior temporal cortex and is important for visual object recognition, (what) an object is. (2) Dorsal pathway is directed into the posterior parietal cortex and is important for spatial perception, (where) an object is.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	23		Second principle of cortical organization: Cortical areas within a pathway are organized hierarchically. Projections from lower-order areas to higher-order areas originate mainly in layer III of cortex and terminate predominantly in layer IV. 'Feedforward' projections.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	23		Projections from higher-order areas to lower-order areas originate mainly in layers V and VI of cortex and terminate both above and below layer IV, but not in layer IV. 'Feedback' projections.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	23		Connections between areas at the same hierarchical level. Terminals vary their laminar pattern from one patch to another; terminals homogeneously distributed across all layers. 'Intermediate' projections.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	24		Average receptive field size increases as one progresses along visual pathways, consistent with the notion that receptive fields of cells in later areas are built up from receptive fields of earlier areas.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	24		Two principles of cortical organization, (1) parallel processing pathways, and (2) hierarchical organization.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	24		Subcortical structures and their connectivity must be included in any analysis of anatomical organization of cognitive function.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	25		Filtering of irrelevant visual information is accomplished via selective attention mechanisms.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Attention functions as a mental spotlight, enhancing the processing of the illuminated item		2
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Network model (Mesulam's) of attention in which several distinct cortical regions interact, including posterior parietal cortex, cingulate cortex, and frontal cortex, all of which are influenced by the reticular activating system.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Parietal component provides an internal perceptual map of the external world.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Cingulate component regulates the spatial distribution of motivational valence.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Frontal component coordinates the motor programs for exploration, scanning, reaching, and fixating.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Reticular component (including noradrenergic,   dopaminergic,   and cholinergic ascending systems) provides the underlying level of arousal.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	27		Cortical components within the attention network are heavily and reciprocally interconnected and are also connected with subcortical structures, including the superior colliculus, which is connected to the frontal eye fields and to the parietal cortex, and the pulvinar and striatum, which are connected to all three cortical regions in the network.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		Cortical areas related to attention are reciprocally interconnected not only with each other but also with the inferior temporal and orbitofrontal cortex. This arrangement provides an anatomical substrate for parallel processing of information.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		Only the parietal,   cingulate,   and frontal areas appear to be critical for the organization of directed attention.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		Model of attention (Posner's) consists of a (1) posterior attention network,   an (2) anterior attention network,   and a (3) vigilance network.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		The posterior network involves the parietal cortex, the pulvinar, and the superior colliculus. These areas bring attention to a location in space.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		The anterior attention network involves the anterior cingulate cortex and supplementary motor areas in the frontal cortex, which together exercise executive control over voluntary behavior and thought processes.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	28		The vigilance network involves the locus coeruleus noradrenergic input to the cortex, which is crucial for maintaining a state of alertness.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	29		Attention is subserved by a system of spatially map structures that are revealed by the neglect syndrome following brain damage. The system operates to enhance perceptual processing at attended locations and reduce perceptual processing at unattended locations.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	29		Extremely large neuronal receptive fields exists at the highest level of the processing pathways.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	29		Single neurons within the inferior temporal cortex, which is the last station of the ventral pathway, have a receptive field size of about 25°, or virtually the entire visual field.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	29		To limit the amount of information that is processed, a model of attention has been proposed based on neural competition.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	29		At several points between input and response, objects in the visual field compete for limited processing capacity and control of behavior. This competition can be biased by both bottom-up neural mechanisms that separate figures from their backgrounds as well as by top-down mechanisms that bias competition in favor of objects relevant to current behavior.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	30		The bias for attention can be controlled by selection of spatial location or by selection of object features.		1
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	30		Attention is not a high-speed spotlight that scans each item in the visual field.		0
Webster; Neuroanatomy of Visual Attention	30		Attention is an emergent property of slow competitive interactions that work in parallel across the visual field.		0
Marrocco; Neurochemistry of Attention	35		A number of different cell systems may be responsible for the filtering and selection of information.		5
Marrocco; Neurochemistry of Attention	35		Attentional operations appear to be distributed across several networks of structures.		0
Marrocco; Neurochemistry of Attention	35		The anterior attentional network, which includes the frontal and cingulate cortex and the basal ganglia, is active during target detection and sustained attention.		0
Marrocco; Neurochemistry of Attention	35		The posterior attentional network, which includes the parietal and inferotemporal cortices,   the superior colliculus,   and the medial pulvinar,   becomes active during visuospatial attention tasks and during the selection of objects in the visual field.		0
Motter; Neurophysiology	52		Discharges associated with a single neuron often produce a rather consistent spike-like shape that differs significantly in its waveform from other nearby neurons.		17
Motter; Neurophysiology	52		The variability in interspike intervals observed for many neurons in various locations in the nervous system is consistent with the presence of a random Poisson process.		0
Motter; Neurophysiology	52		Information appears to be coded within single neurons only by the average rate of firing and not by the precise composition of the intervals between spikes.		0
Motter; Neurophysiology	53		Cortical neurons receive around 5,000--10,000 synapses, of which about 85% are excitatory. If inputs arrived randomly, their integration would result in a fairly regular output train.		1
Motter; Neurophysiology	53		The effect of inhibition in cortical circuits is not simply an antagonistic balancing act versus excitation. Inhibition acts as a trimming damper on the explosive growth of positive feedback gain of excitatory cortical circuits. Relatively small amounts of inhibition provided at the correct time can shape the amplification of information.		0
Motter; Neurophysiology	53		Modeling studies emphasize the necessity of considering the collective action of neural assemblies in information processing.		0
Motter; Neurophysiology	53		Synaptic integration at most cortical synapses can be regulated by slow and long-acting neuromodulators. Many of these neuromodulator systems originate in areas of the basal forebrain and brainstem, areas that exert major state controls over waking and attentive behavior.		0
Luck; ERPs	71		Event-related potentials (ERPs) are electrophysiological responses that arise during sensory, cognitive, and motor processing and can be recorded noninvasively from normal human subjects.		18
Luck; ERPs	73		If multiple electrodes are used to measure activity at many scalp sites, the distribution of voltage over the scalp can be used as an index of the neuroanatomical loci of the neural and cognitive processes.		2
Luck; ERPs	73		ERPs can be used to assess the effects of attention on sensory and cognitive processing, providing a precise index of the timing of attentional processes and a somewhat less precise index of the neural structures.		0
Luck; ERPs	73		ERPs typically arise as a result of the postsynaptic potentials that are created when neurotransmitters bind with receptors on postsynaptic neurons.		0
Luck; ERPs	81		Attention operates at an early stage of processing.		8
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	96		First PET scanner for brain studies with built in the mid-1970s at Washington University.		15
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	104		Visual objects can be described as a combination of simpler visual features (color, motion, orientation, texture, disparity, and location).		8
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	113		A superior frontal region, located near Broadman's area 6, is commonly activated for locational working memory.		9
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	115		Anatomical, physiological, and imaging studies indicate that the anterior cingulate region is heterogeneous and includes multiple representations.		2
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	116		PET has become a major tool for the exploration of human cognition.		1
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	116		Attention to feature or to objects amplifies relevant information in specialized processing regions of extrastriate visual regions.		0
Corbetta; PET Visual Attention	116		Regions in the superior parietal cortex select object locations for focal processing, biasing activity in ventral regions related to object processing.		0
Haxby; fMRI	123		Functional MRI, (fMRI) requires no exposure to ionizing radiation, no injections of tracers, and no sampling of blood. Technical difficulties imposed by working in a powerful ambient magnetic field have been overcome.		7
Haxby; fMRI	123		MRI uses the radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic waves emitted by the nuclei of hydrogen atoms with single-proton nuclei to construct detailed images of the brain and other organs.		0
Haxby; fMRI	126		fMRI measures are virtually instantaneous, making hemodynamic responses the only factor that limits temporal resolution.		3
Haxby; fMRI	126		fMRI is not limited by radiation dose restrictions.		0
Haxby; fMRI	126		Enough data from one individual can be collected via fMRI to perform massive signal averaging, increasing sensitivity and precision sufficiently to obtain detailed maps of responses in an individual brain.		0
Haxby; fMRI	126		An fMRI experiment consists of a series of images obtained over a period that typically lasts from one to 20 minutes.		0
Haxby; fMRI	130		fMRI has the capability to detect changes in neural activity over intervals as brief as a few seconds in the brain structures that are only 2 mm across.		4
Haxby; fMRI	132		Selective attention can modulate activity in multiple areas that comprise its processing pathway.		2
Haxby; fMRI	132		Ventral and dorsal extrastriate cortex. Dissociation between the ventral object vision pathway and the dorsal spatial vision pathway.		0
Haxby; fMRI	132		Suppression of processing of irrelevant and potentially distracting information.		0
Haxby; fMRI	134		Motor skill learning: Size of the cortical patch activated in motor cortex increased significantly.		2
Haxby; fMRI	134		Representation of the learned sequence included additional cortical columns in motor cortex.		0
Haxby; fMRI	134		Change in the functional connectivity between regions.		0
Haxby; fMRI	135		fMRI studies of working memory.		1
Haxby; fMRI	135		Working memory for face identity: Three extrastriate regions and three prefrontal regions. Distributed neural system.		0
Haxby; fMRI	138		Attention may modulate the activity of cortical regions that process attended and unattended information, altering interconnections between regions.		3
Haxby; fMRI	138		Selective attention to facial identity augmented interregional correlations in the ventral object vision pathway, whereas selective attention to the spatial location of faces augmented interregional correlations in the dorsal object vision pathway.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	146		Prefrontal cortex can exert an inhibitory, top-down influence on neural activity within primary sensory cortices.		8
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	155		Damage to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex produces impairments in sustained and phasic attention abilities, as well as deficits in inhibitory control of external stimuli and internal cognitive processing.		9
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	155		The prefrontal lesion patient operates in a noisy internal environment deficient in the critical regulatory mechanisms necessary for the maintenance of working memory, executive control functions, and the use the strategies.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		Prefrontal cortex appears to have both inhibitory and facilitatory influences on sensory and cognitive processing.		1
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		Early input to primary sensory cortices is modulated by an inhibitory, prefrontal control mechanisms.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		Later processing in association cortices is dependent on facilitory prefrontal input.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		In addition to the sensory control mechanisms subserving sustained attention and working memory, a prefrontal-hippocampal network is selectively engaged during processing of novel stimuli.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		Based on anatomical connectivity, it is suggested that prefrontal cortex is ideally suited to generate and evaluate internal models of action.		0
Swick & Knight; Cortical Lesions and Attention	156		In addition to its function and role in sustained attention and working memory, the prefrontal-hippocampal system is crucial for detecting changes in the environment and for discriminating between internally and externally derived models of the world.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	167		Majority of synaptic inputs to cortical cells (up to 90% or more of all links to excitatory synapses) is provided by other cortical cells and not by sensory input.		11
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	167		Top-down influence in the central nervous system.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	167		Importance of both bottom-up and top-down processes is exemplified by Ullman's model of information flow in the visual cortex for object recognition.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	167		Attentional bottleneck that limits the total amount of information made accessible to higher cognitive functions.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	168		A significant reduction of complexity is achieved if the recognition of an object (what is it?) can be separated from its localization (where is it?).		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	168		Decoupling of task of recognition and localization.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	168		Tight integration of the "what" and "where" pathways is essential; at any time, it is necessary that the information in the two pathways be unambiguously correlated.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	169		Detection of elementary features is most economically carried out by massively parallel processes early in the visual hierarchy.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	170		Time required for one shift of attention is on the order of 30 - 50 ms.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	170		Much longer dwell times (than 30 - 50 ms) for the focus of attention.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	170		Abruptly changing stimuli attract attention.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	171		Attention as a gatekeeper for memory and awareness, allowing only selected portions of the visual scene to enter working memory.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	171		Working memory may be thought of as providing intermediate storage for    different perceptual elements    selected at different times.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	171		Another task of working memory is to    establish spatial relations between the    selected feature elements.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	174		Pulvinar nuclei of the thalamus play a significant role in the selection of visual targets.		3
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	175		In addition to the pulvinar, other significant areas in the selection of visual targets are the posterior parietal cortex and the superior colliculus.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	175		In cell-gaited architectures, cell populations that do not code for attended information are deactivated (suppressed).		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	178		The attentional selection process works by marking (or tagging) the selected stimuli, based on the temporal fine structure of neuronal spike trains.		3
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	178		A tagged stimulus not only survives the perceptual selection process but will also lead to motor action.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	179		Cells in early visual cortex (area V2) respond to visual stimuli with a spike train with a stochastic distribution of interspike intervals with an appropriate, stimulus-dependent mean firing rate.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	179		Spike trains of neurons whose receptive fields do not overlap with the focus of attention are distributed according to a homogeneous Poisson process.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	179		Spike trains of cells with receptive fields within the focus of attention are distributed according to a probabilistic distribution with a different time structure, which is generated by modulatory influences from the saliency map.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	179		The modulated time structure of each spike train is realized as a periodic repetition with a frequency in the gamma, or 40 Hz range.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	179		No specific time structure is imposed on spike trains from any one single cell, but the modulation is manifest in the form of correlations (or synchronization) between spike trains of cells responding to an attended stimulus.		0
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	180		Any information-processing system with finite resources operating in the real world requires an attentive mechanism, because the multitude of sensors would overwhelm its computational capabilities if all sensory inputs were processed simultaneously. Efficient processing requires careful selection of the most relevant stimuli and suppression of all others.		1
Niebur & Koch; Computational Architectures for Attention	181		Although bottom-up selection processing is essential for attention, complexity arguments indicate that top-down processes are indispensable for the processing of complex stimuli.		1
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	190		Mechanisms of attention are related to energy constructs such as arousal and activation, which connote nonspecific neuronal excitability deriving from the reticular formation and specific chemically-defined or thalamic systems that innervate the forebrain.		9
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	190		Monoaminergic or cholinergic systems are often correlated with higher levels of arousal present in wakefulness or response to stress.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	190		Monoaminergic or cholinergic systems can modulate the functioning of neuronal networks by adjusting the signal-to-noise ratio of neural signals in the forebrain processing.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	191		Monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems (noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotoninergic) as well as cholinergetic (acetylcholine, ACh) system.		1
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	199		Distinction between sustained attention and vigilance, described as a state of readiness to detect and respond to unpredictable and rare events.		8
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	199		Noradrenergic locus ceruleus role in behavioral vigilance.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	202		Divided attention assumes that the brain is limited in its ability to monitor in parallel more than a finite number of inputs, and thus requires a switching mechanism to enable effective time-sharing of activities.		3
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	205		Several attentional networks in the primate brain. Three regions of the primate brain appear to play unique roles in attentional shifts: midbrain, including the superior colliculus (in the control of visual saccades and the movement of attention); the lateral pulvinar of the thalamus, which mediates the engagement of attention at a novel attentional focus; and the posterior parietal cortex, which probably mediates the disengagement of intention from a given location and which may account for some of the deficits observed in the neglect syndromes.		3
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	205		Neglect syndrome -- in which stimuli on one side of the sensory world are ignored. The syndrome is generally produced by lesions to the contralateral brain either at the cortical or subcortical level.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	208		Primary acoustic startle reflex is controlled by brainstem nuclei.		3
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	211		A wealth of detailed theory exists concerning attentional function in human subjects, derived from cognitive psychology.		3
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	211		Human paradigm suitable for investigating different aspects of attention such as vigilance, divided attention, sustained attention, and selective attention.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	211		Projection from the cholinergenic basal forebrain to the neocortex (primarily the anterior regions) plays a role in attention.		0
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	212		Striatal dopaminergic systems are involved in attentional processes such as readiness that operate at the output stage on mechanisms related to response preparation.		1
Robbins; Pharmacology, Arousal, Attention	212		Control of attention at a thalamocortical level.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	221		Vigilance can be considered a basic primitive form of attention.		9
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	221		Brainstem reticular formation, cortical activation or arousal system.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	221		Vigilance as a state of readiness to detect and respond to certain small changes occurring at random time intervals in the environment.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	222		It is easy to be briefly attentive to a conspicuous and predictable event, such as a traffic light changing.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	222		It is somewhat difficult to maintain attention to some source of information to detect the occurrence of infrequent, unpredictable events over long periods of time.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	222		Tasks requiring detection of transient signals over long periods of time are known as vigilance or sustained attention tasks.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	222		In vigilant tasks, quality of information is fragile -- it declines over time -- an outcome known as a vigilance detriment.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	222		Vigilance decrement.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	226		Neurobiology of vigilance.		4
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Relate vigilance to arousal or alertness.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Arousal refers to a variety of physiological and behavioral changes characterized by a degree of excitation or energy mobilization.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Multiple subcortical arousal systems and fMRI studies of vigilance in humans.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Reticular formation and the intralaminar thalamic nuclei to which it projects.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Reticular system -- multiple ascending pathways from subcortical nuclei, each associated with different neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that have different properties and different cortical innervation patterns.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		Four main projection systems have been identified as playing functional roles in arousal and attention:    (1) cholinergic basal forebrain,    (2) noradrenergic nucleus locus coerulus (LC),    (3) dopaminergic median forebrain bundle,    (4) serotonergic dorsal raphe nucleus.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	227		In addition to the intralaminar thalamic nuclei, two other thalamic nuclei, the reticular nucleus and the pulvinar, have been implicated in attention and arousal.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	228		Basal forebrain cholinergic system plays an important role in attention and arousal processes		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	228		LC noradrenergic system role in cortical arousal.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	228		High-frequency, low-amplitude, asynchronous cortical EEG, associated with the alert, waking state, appears to reflect an increase in subcortical noradrenergic activity with an efficient relay of subcortical afferent inputs to the cortex.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	228		Low-frequency, high-amplitude, synchronous EEG, accompanying states of drowsiness and sleep, is associated with decreased noradrenergic activity and a blockade of sensory-afferent thalamic input to the cortex.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	229		Alert attentiveness is associated with fast EEG beta (14-30 Hz) activity.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	229		Relaxed wakefulness in which attentiveness per se is not necessary is characterized by slower alpha (8-13 Hz) activity.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	229		Drowsiness leads to even slower theta (4-7 Hz) and delta (1-3 Hz) activity.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	235		Most perceptual and cognitive processes are neurally mediated by multiple brain regions rather than a single area.		6
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	235		Posterior parietal, prefrontal and cingulate cortices are interconnected by axonal projections to adjacent rather than to overlapping target sites in each area, without collateral inputs, thus defining a parallel, reciprocally connected network subserving spatial attention.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	235		Attention functions are considered to be controlled by networks of interconnected brain regions.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	235		In a general architecture for attentional functions, parietal regions were postulated to be associated with sensory representation of the world and spatial attention, the frontal cortex with motor representations and planning, and the reticular formation with arousal and vigilance.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	236		Three interacting networks mediating different aspects of attention:  (1) a posterior attention system comprising parietal cortex, superior colliculus, and pulvinar that is concern was spatial attention; (2) anterior system centered on the anterior cingulate in the medial frontal lobe that mediates target detection and executive control; (3) a vigilance system consisting of the right frontal lobe and brainstem nuclei, principally the noradrenergic locus coerulus (LC).		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	236		It has been suggested that the vigilance system is right lateralized due to greater innervation of the right hemisphere by ascending noradrenergic pathways.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	237		Each of the models identifies the brainstem reticular formation (or specific subsystems of the reticular formation) as playing important roles in vigilance.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	239		Long history of evidence implicating the brainstem reticular formation and arousal.		2
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	239		Damage to the frontal lobes, especially right hemispheric lesions, impairs cortical arousal.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	241		Prefrontal cortex is involved in arousal and in the overall level of vigilance.		2
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	241		Cingulate gyrus has been implicated in vigilance. Reduced activation of the anterior cingulate gyrus has been implicated in vigilance.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	242		Cingulate gyrus is the cortical area lying just above the corpus callosum which is the nerve fiber tract surgically severed in split brain patients.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	243		Although the right frontal lobe may play a dominant role in vigilance, integrated action of both cerebral hemispheres as well as subcortical nuclei is required.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	243		Both hemispheres are involved in vigilance, but the right hemisphere prenominates.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	244		Noradrenergic brainstem reticular formation, intralamina thalamic nuclei,    and the right prefrontal cortex    are all involved in vigilance.		1
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	244		A network of brain regions -- including the LC noradrenergic system, the basal forebrain cholinergic system, the intralaminar thalamic nuclei, and the right prefrontal cortex -- are involved in the initiation of the vigilance state and in cortical arousal.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	247		Neurobiology of vigilance.		3
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	247		Relationship between vigilance and brain systems regulating cortical arousal, and the identification of brain regions that are involved in vigilance.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	247		Basal forebrain cholinergic arousal system in vigilance.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	249		Relationship between vigilance and brain systems that regulate cortical arousal.		2
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	249		Vigilance as distinct from arousal.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	249		How brain regions that mediate vigilance are functionally interrelated.		0
Parasuraman; Varieties of Attention	249		Noradrenergic reticular formation,    the right prefrontal cortex,    and the basal forebrain cholinergic system    are involved in the overall level of vigilance.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	257		Visual agnosias, defined in the classical sense as visual object recognition problems, are more often seen after damage to the temporal lobes, whereas visuospatial problems are more likely observed following damage to the parietal lobes.		8
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	257		Areas along the ventral temporal pathway contain neurons that are responsive to object features such as color, brightness, and shape.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	257		Areas along the dorsal parietal pathway contain neurons that are responsive to spatial features necessary for localization,    perception of motion,    and preparation for action.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	257		Modular system for visual processing, with different areas within each pathway responding to different features. The number of these specialized areas has been estimated at about 30.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	258		Features of an object are bound to each other to form a unique object.		1
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	258		Each object is bound to a location and is separated from other objects either by its distinct features or by its relative location or by both.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	260		Unilateral visual neglect -- a person can lose visual awareness of one half of the visual world but maintain awareness of the other half. Patients with neglect do not respond to information that is contralateral to the side of the lesion.		2
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	261		Neglect does occur in retinal coordinates, but it also occurs in environmental and object-centered coordinates as well.		1
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	261		It is likely that some of the differences observed among patients with neglect are due to different functional contributions associated with the different anatomical areas involved in spatial attention.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	261		Classical symptoms of neglect (spatial deficit for one half of the field), closely linked to functions of the parietal lobes.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	261		Acute stages after stroke, neglect is at its worst; may take up to six months for neurological problems to stabilize. By that time it is likely that clinical symptoms of unilateral neglect are gone.		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	274		Brains compute spatial information in order to perceive and attend to objects veridically.		13
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	274		Neural response data suggests a high degree of neural interaction between areas of the cortex that are responsible for spatial perception (dorsal pathways) and other areas that code features and objects and perhaps implicit spatial information (ventral pathways).		0
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	275		Binding or conjunctions of features that enter awareness require a high level of spatial representation.		1
Robertson; Attention and Parietal Function	275		Visual awareness of more than one object may require the accurate computation of space from a variety of spatial maps.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	299		A range of segmentation processes can influence selection, leading to a variety of senses in which visual attention may be object based.		24
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	299		Different types of object based attention must be carefully distinguished in research studies of neural substrates involved.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	301		Gestalt Grouping		2
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	301		Gestaltists noted that our visual experience is spontaneously organized into distinct groups and objects in a predictable manner.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	301		Regions that are closer, smaller, surrounded, higher in contrast, convex, or symmetrical tend to become figural.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	301		Rarely, our competing perception factors yield ambiguous reversible organizations such as Rubin's faces versus vase displays.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	301		Many of the Gestaltists' phenomenal demonstrations may actually reflect the operation of attentional mechanisms.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	302		Our ability to attend selectively should be constrained by Gestalt grouping.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	303		When motion and proximity are pitted against each other, either may predominate, depending on exact circumstances.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	309		Visual search depends strongly on how the display is segmented.		6
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	309		Attention can also be restricted to items on one surface in stereoscopic depth.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	310		Items with sudden onset tended to be examined first during an apparently serial scan, where is items with other unique properties (e.g. color) apparently were not.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	310		Research studies concluded that visual transients capture attention.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	310		Motion per se apparently does not capture attention,  but motion that newly segments an object from a background that it was previously grouped together with does lead to attention capture.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	310		Segmentation strongly constraines feature conjunction, so that miscombinations of presented features are less likely between separate objects or groups than within them.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	311		Symmetry and repetition detection.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	312		Distractors that are grouped with the target interfere more than do comparable distractors that are not so grouped.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	312		Visual search is powerfully influenced by segmentation processes and the same applies to feature integration.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	313		Auditory attention.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	313		Neglect is a common deficit after unilateral brain injury, in which patients fail to acknowledge or respond appropriately to events toward the contralesion side of space.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	314		When copying drawings, neglect patients often omit details on the contralesional side.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	316		It has been argued that the visual system describes shapes relative to their principal axis of elongation or symmetry.		2
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	316		Neglect can apply to the left of segmented figures, with principal axes providing the divide between left and right sides for each shape.		0
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	317		Extinction is often regarded as a more primitive spatial phenomenon, in which patients can detect isolated events toward either the contralesional or ipsilesional side, but miss contralesional stimuli presented simultaneously with a competing ipsilesional event.		1
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	320		Lateral biases in attention that emerge following unilateral brain injury in neglect and extinction.		3
Driver & Baylis; Visual Object Segmentation	320		Visual attention can be object based in a number of ways.		0
Braun; Divided Attention	327		Visual attention modulates neural responses in many parts of visual cortex.		7
Braun; Divided Attention	328		Visual attention is often started with the closely related paradigms of visual search and visual texture segregation.		1
Braun; Divided Attention	328		In a visual scene containing many discrete stimuli, there may be certain stimuli that are readily detected among the others (this phenomenon is called pop-out or parallel search).		0
Braun; Divided Attention	329		The visual world is multiply represented by approximately 30 visual cortical areas, and the neurons in these areas encode a wide variety of visual information.		1
Braun; Divided Attention	332		Visual performance is strongly influenced by attention.		3
Braun; Divided Attention	346		The existence of serial and parallel attentional processes (i.e. focal attention and pop-out) is well accepted.		14
Braun; Divided Attention	346		Stimuli that pop-out usually possess a locally unique feature that is not shared by surrounding stimuli.		0
Braun; Divided Attention	346		When several stimuli are prominent, pop-out seems to be determined by global competition among prominent stimuli.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	353		Spatial Working Memory and Spatial Selective Attention		7
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		Neural processes involved in spatial attention (theory proposed by Mesulam).		1
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		Attentional processes are mediated by the activation of a network that includes four primary brain regions.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(1) frontal component (the dorsolateral, or, premotor, prefrontal cortex) provides a spatial map for the coordination of exploratory motor processes.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(2) posterior parietal component coordinates the formation of a spatial representation of extrapersonal space.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(3) processes of the anterior cingulate gyrus provide a spatial map of motivational valence.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(4) a subcortical reticular component modulates the overall arousal and vigilance necessary for attentional processing.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		Mesulam's network mediates two qualitatively different types of attentional processing.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(1) Tonic regulation of the overall threshold that stimuli must exceed in order to reach consciousness. The reticular component is claimed to mediate this process.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		(2) Phasic selection (i.e., location-specific enhancement) of items that will receive attentional resources from the multiple items that reach threshold. The frontal, parietal, and cingulate components of the network are claimed to subserve that type of attentional processing.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	354		Majority of neuroscientific studies of, spatial attention place emphasis on the frontal and parietal components of attentional processing.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	361		Hemineglect, syndrome that is classically associated with impaired spatial attention.		7
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	361		Attentional deficits are most prevalent in parietal cortex.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	361		Attentional deficits and subcortical lesions -- data implicate posterior and medial thalamic areas as well as the basal ganglia in spatial attention.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	361		Distinct attentional disorders result from lesions of the inferior and superior areas of parietal cortex.		0
Awh; Spatial Working Memory	361		Right inferior parietal lesions are the most frequent correlate of hemineglect, which may be defined as the failure to explore the contralesional side of space.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	381		Attention and language; two of the most widely studied aspects of human cognitive skills. Basic elements of cognition.		20
Fischler; Attention and Language	381		Seminal work on attention in the 1950s.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	383		Diversity and newness of many of the cognitive neuroscience techniques; frequent cases of inconsistent findings.		2
Fischler; Attention and Language	384		Uncertainty about localization of language in the brain.		1
Fischler; Attention and Language	384		Language competes with other processes, for access to a limited-capacity executive attentional system.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	385		Subcortical activating systems in the thalamus, with its rich and diverse connectivity to the cortex, have been considered a likely site for selective engagement of specific cortical functions.		1
Fischler; Attention and Language	387		Imaging studies support the classic view of two left hemisphere regions being particularly important in the representation, maintenance, and production of phonological codes for language:    the posterior portion of the left superior temporal gyrus, or Wernicke's area,    and the dorsolateral portion of the left inferior frontal gyrus, or Broca's area.		2
Fischler; Attention and Language	388		Broca's area was active in tasks requiring discrimination of consonant sequences but not of vowels.		1
Fischler; Attention and Language	388		Ability to represent the phonemic or orthographical pattern that corresponds to a word is the means of communication;		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	388		The goal of language is to communicate information --     and the semantic representation of the concepts that a word stands for is the heart of language.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	388		Lexical-semantic network.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	388		Neural convergence zones.		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	389		Localization of Semantic Knowledge.		1
Fischler; Attention and Language	389		Neural systems that represent the meaning of words have proved particularly challenging to isolate anatomically, which has led some to conclude that semantic knowledge is by its nature diffusely represented, probably by a sort of distributed processing systems		0
Fischler; Attention and Language	389		Cell assemblies representing knowledge may be part of a distributed network.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	401		A specific model of higher-level control to specify when executive attention is a necessary aspect of information processing.		12
Posner; Executive Attention	402		First level of control operates via contention scheduling, which uses schemas to coordinate well learned behaviors and thoughts.		1
Posner; Executive Attention	402		Once a schema is selected, it remains active until it reaches its goal or it is inhibited by a competitive schema or by higher-level control.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	402		The contentions-scheduling mechanism corresponds to a routine selection.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	402		When the situation is novel on highly competitive (i.e. when it requires executive control), a supervisory attentional system intervenes and provides additional inhibition or activation to the appropriate schema for this situation.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		We suggest that executive control operations are dissociable from other cognitive operations in a task.		1
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Contention scheduling works via local inhibition of competing schemas.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Visual sub-processing systems perform selection via a local competition in which the receptive fields are viewed as critical resources for which stimuli are competing.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Competition for these sub-processing systems is resolved by inhibition in the local neural circuit.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Competition can be biased by a top-down mechanism that selects objects that are important to the current behavior all goal.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Preferential increases of neuronal activity for selected features or locations.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Scalp electrical recording has demonstrated both increases of electrical activity from selected events and decreases from competing events.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	403		Like the supervisory system mechanism, competition for control of behavior appears to be resolved at local sites by the relative amplification of the selected competitor.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	405		Many studies involving the detection of targets or the resolution of conflict among targets have found activation in the anterior cingulate.		2
Posner; Executive Attention	405		Stroop task (Stroop, 1935)		0
Posner; Executive Attention	406		Following practice,    a schema will be formed    that will trigger when the stimulus is presented,    and the supervisory system will not be necessary.		1
Posner; Executive Attention	406		Following extended practice,    the anterior cingulate and the left lateral prefrontal cortex were inactive --     instead, there was increased activation in the anterior insula,    activation similar to that when subjects read the words aloud.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	406		Anterior cingulate is active when the supervisory system is necessary for appropriate behavior, and the anterior cingulate is inactive when the supervisory system should be inactive and the contention-scheduling mechanisms are active.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	409		For a brain area to perform a supervisory function, it must influence widely distributed parts of the brain.		3
Posner; Executive Attention	409		Anatomical studies suggests that the anterior cingulate, like many brain regions, has close contact with many other cortical areas.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	409		The cingulate's connections to the lateral frontal areas involved in word processing and to posterior parietal areas are involved in orienting are particularly strong.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		Anterior cingulate is active during tasks that require some thought and its activity is reduced or disappears as tasks become routine.		2
Posner; Executive Attention	411		The anterior cingulate and other midline frontal areas are involved in producing the local amplification in neural activity that accompanies top-down selection of items.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		It is well known from cognitive studies that a target word is processed more efficiently following the presentation of the related prime word.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		A portion of the improvement occurs automatically because the prime word activates a pathways shared with the target.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		Another portion of the activation is top-down because the attention to the prime leads the subject to expect a particular type of target.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		The cingulate in conjunction with other midline areas is responsible for the top-down effects in that it provides a boost in activation to items associated with the expectation.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		Anatomically, the cingulate is in contact with areas of the left lateral and posterior cortex that seemed to be involved in understanding the meaning of a given target word.		0
Posner; Executive Attention	411		The time course of activation of the cingulate (170 ms) and the left lateral frontal (220 ms) cortex during the generate use task  supports our speculation that attention interacts with the semantic activation pattern.		0
Johnson; Developing Attentive Brain	428		Most aspects of gross cortical structure, such as cell numbers and location, are in place at the time of birth in the human infant. More detailed aspects of cortical structure such as synaptic density and glucose uptake, show prolonged postnatal development.		17