Squire & Kandel; Memory
Book Page   Topic      
Squire & Kandel; Memory 8 Carl Lashley (1890-1958) (photo)
Squire & Kandel; Memory 9 Many forms of memory require one or another of the subcortical regions. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 9 No singel center in the brain where all memories are permanently stored. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 9 Many parts of the brain must participate in the representation of memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 10 Donald Hebb (1904-1985) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 11 Four lobes of the human brain (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 11 Patient HM 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 12 Brenda Milner (photo) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 19 Gene knockout mice 7
Squire & Kandel; Memory 23 In 1957 Brenda Milner first described a catastrophic memory loss in patient HM. 4
Squire & Kandel; Memory 25 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) (photo) 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 26 Habituation -- simplest case of nondeclarative memory. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 26 Habituation is learning to recognize, and ignore as familiar, unimportant stimuli that are monotonously repetitive. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 28 Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) (photo) 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 30 Variety of types of neurons in the brain (diagram) 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 32 Presynaptic cell and postsynaptic cell (diagram) 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 33 Chemical signal passes from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell. (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 47 Molecules for short-term memory. 14
Squire & Kandel; Memory 51 Ionotropic receptor; Metabotropic receptor (diagram) 4
Squire & Kandel; Memory 55 Biochemical steps in the presynaptic facilitation of the sensory neuron  (diagram) 4
Squire & Kandel; Memory 63 Presynaptic component of sensitization and classical conditioning (diagram) 8
Squire & Kandel; Memory 64 Postsynaptic component of the molecular mechanism contributing to classical conditioning (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 69 Declarative memory 5
Squire & Kandel; Memory 83 Brain systems for declarative memory 14
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 William James (1841-1910)  (photo) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 Cognitive psychologists subdivide short-term memory into two major components -- immediate memory and working memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 Immediate memory refers to what can be held actively in mind that forms the focus of current attention and that occupies the current stream of thought. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 Capacity of immediate memory is quite limited (it can hold approximately 7 items), and unless its contents are rehearsed, it ordinarily persists for less than 30 seconds. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 Ordinarily, information will slip from your conscious mind within a few seconds, but immediate memory can be extended in time and its contents retained for many minutes if you rehearse actively.  This extension of immediate memory is called working memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 Working memory is an extension of immediate memory by rehearsing. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 84 An object or fact can be represented initially as immediate memory, its representation can be sustained in working memory, and it can ultimately persist as long term memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Immediate memory and working memory are best thought of as a collection of temporary memory capacities that operate in parallel. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 One kind of working memory, the phonological loop, is concerned with language and temporarily stores spoken words and meaningful sounds. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Another kind of working memory, the visuospatial sketch pad, stores visual images such as faces and spatial layouts. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Working memory may consist of a relatively large number of temporary capacities, each a property of one of the brains specialized information processing systems. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Activity of single neurons from area TE, a higher order visual area in the temporal lobe, are thought to be important for perception of visual objects. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Neurons that exhibit sustained activation while an animal is holding an item of sensory information in temporary memory have been found in visual cortex, auditory cortex, and sensorimotor cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Frontal lobes are essential for performing tasks that require holding information in mind for impending action, as well as for retrieving information when memory is being reconstructed.  [Fuster's  perception-action cycle]  [Edelman's dynamic core] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 85 Holding function of frontal lobes involves what cognitive psychologists mean by the term 'working memory'.  Frontal lobes hold material in working memory to guide ongoing behavior and cognition.  [Fuster's  perception-action cycle]  [Edelman's dynamic core] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 86 Neural activity and working memory; delayed matching to sample; monkey (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 86 Frontal cortex has reciprocal anatomical connections with most of the visual areas of the brain, including area TE. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 87 Frontal cortex and sensory cortices work together as a neuronal system to perceive information and then hold it in working memory for temporary use. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 87 Frontal cortex receives sensory information from upstream cortical areas and then -- depending on attention, motivation, and overall direction of behavior -- provides feedback to some subset of these areas, directing them to hold information in mind for impending action, for comprehension and planning, or possibly for integration into long-term memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 87 Cortical visual areas and some of their connections to major pathways from area V1. Processing stream for analyzing the visual form and quality of objects follows a ventral route into the temporal lobe. Processing stream for analyzing object location follows the dorsal root into the parietal lobe. (diagram) 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Dorsal route from area V1 forward to the parietal cortex is concerned with the locations of objects in space,    the spatial relationships between objects,    and the computations needed to reach particular locations in space. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Each station along the ventral and dorsal streams contributes in a specialized way to the processing of information necessary for visual perception.    Some areas analyze color,    others analyze direction of motion,    still others analyze depth or orientation. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 The more forward areas tend be more involved with the analysis of whole percepts such as objects. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Areas distributed throughout both ventral and dorsal streams are activated simultaneously when we perceive an object in space. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 What is perceived can persist as working memory when there is sustained neural activity in the same regions, and coordination with activity in the frontal cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Long-term memory is a process that depends crucially on structures in the medial temporal lobe. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Medial temporal lobe is not the ultimate long-term repository of memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Long-term memories are stored in the same distributed set of structures that receive, process, and analyze what is to be remembered. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Memory for a recently encountered object would be distributed among area TE in the temporal lobe, area PG in the parietal lobe, and other areas. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Persistent changes occur in the strengths of connections among neurons, which respond differently after learning. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Aggregate activity in the collection of altered neurons comprises the long-term memory of what was perceived. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Same brain areas appear to be used for long-term memory as are used for visual perception and intermediate memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 88 Studies of brain injured patients support the idea that different regions of the brain are involved in storing different kinds of memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 89 Damage to the left temporal parietal region of the human brain or to the left frontal parietal region can produce remarkably selective losses of category specific knowledge. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 89 Particular sensory and motor systems that are used to learn about the world influence where in the brain information is ultimately stored. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 90 People learn about living things and large, outdoor objects primarily through vision, and many of the brain systems that process shape, color, and visual recognition located within the temporal lobe. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 90 People learn about in inanimate objects like tools and furniture through processing systems that concern manual interaction and understanding of function; these processing systems are located within the parietal lobe and in the frontal cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Visual processing pathways in the visual cortex converge on a number of targets, including the cortex of the frontal lobe and the medial surface of the temporal lobe.    If any single one of the visual processing areas is damaged, the result is a specific impairment in perception. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 One lesion may cause a difficulty in the perception of motion and another a difficulty and perception of faces. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 A damaged medial temporal lobe does not impair perception at all. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Damage to the medial temporal lobe impairs all of declarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Memory is a normal consequence of perception. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Medial temporal lobe allows for the lasting effects of perceptual experience that we called memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes produces a severe and selective impairment in declarative memory, a clinical syndrome known as amnesia. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Damage to the medial temporal lobes may produce amnesia. The cognitive deficit is similar following surgical removal, head injury, stroke, ischemia, anoxia or disease. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Alzheimer's disease typically begins with symptoms of memory impairment;    degenerative brain changes characteristic of the disease first appear in the medial temporal lobe. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Chronic alcoholism    can also result in an amnesic condition,    because years of alcohol abuse damage the medial thalamus and the hypothalamus,    areas with anatomical connections to the medial temporal lobe. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 91 Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobe; patient perceives the material normally and holds it satisfactorily in immediate memory; material cannot persist in long-term memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 When a person perceives information via the senses, the material is available so long as it remains in view or is otherwise available to the senses so that it can be perceived.  It remains available for use so long as it is being rehearsed and held in working memory. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Damage to the medial temporal lobe spares immediate memory and working memory, because these early-stage forms of memory depend on areas of cortex outside the medial temporal lobe. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 After a few seconds, immediate memory or working memory can no longer support recollection unless the information is maintained by rehearsal. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Medial temporal lobe is essential for memory storage and retrieval. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Effects of medial temporal lobe lesions were first described in the 1950s. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Brenda Milner's studies and later experimental work eventually made a convincing case that memory was a separable and isolated function of the brain. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Memory impaired patients could perform normally virtually all functions that do not require new learning. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Memory impaired patients    perform well on tests that make large demands on their perceptual abilities. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Digit span test.     Amnesiac patients and controls subject both repeat back an average of 6.8 digits. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 92 Deficits in long-term memory of amnesic patients can be severe.  Any complex activity presents a challenge because following the correct sequence of steps places a burden on memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 MRI imaging has revealed the extent of the areas surgically removed in the amnesic patient HM (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 Functional amnesia is often described as a loss of personal identity. It is much rarer than the amnesia that results from brain damage 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 Function amnesias typically do not impair new learning  capacity. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 Principal symptom of functional amnesia is loss of memory for the past.  Some patients lose personal, autobiographical memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 Sometimes functional amnesia passes, and lost memories are recovered. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 93 Medial temporal lobe is a large region of the brain; it includes the amygdala, the hippocampus, and surrounding cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 94 Hippocampus,  amygdala diagram -- excellent (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Medial temporal lobe and memory.     Three distinct areas: entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex. 4
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Major projections into the hippocampus originate in the entorhinal cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Entorhinal cortex receives information from elsewhere in the cortex, approximately two thirds of it from the adjacent perirhinal and parahippocampal cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex receive information from and send information to a broad extent of cortex. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Direct damage to the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices impairs memory even more severely than damage to the hippocampal region itself. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 98 Perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices contribute to declarative memory; information need not reach the hippocampus for some memory to be stored. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Pathways into and out of the medial temporal lobe memory system.  Parahippocampal cortex;  Entorhinal cortex; Perirhinal cortex; Subiculum; Hippocampus  (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Good correspondence among the findings for all the well-studied mammalian species: rats, monkeys, and humans. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Declarative memory is well adapted for forming conjunctions (or associations) between two arbitrarily different stimuli. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Declarative memory functions to represent objects and events in the external world and the relationships between them.  [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Flexibility of representations -- animals can learn relations among stored items and then expressed this relational knowledge in novel situations.  [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 99 Flexibility of declarative memory, and the relative inflexibility of nondeclarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 100 Morris water maze 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 101 Non-declarative, stimulus-response memory sometimes called habit learning.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 101 Habit memory can only retrace the same path on each succeeding trial.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 101 Hippocampus of rats constructs a rich representation of space. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 101 Rats learning associations between odors. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 102 Hippocampus serves a general memory function in rats, just as it does in humans. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 102 Memory is not fixed at the time of learning but takes considerable time to develop its permanent form.  Fixation process. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 102 Much of the memory fixation process is completed during the first few hours after learning. But the process extends well beyond this point and involves continuous changes in the organization of long-term memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 102 Can take several years for a memory to become stabilized. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 102 People remember material learned recently better than material learned long ago. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 103 Memory grows gradually resistant to disruption over a relatively long period. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 103 For patient HM, retrograde amnesia of several years together with intact memory for remote events. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 103 Studies involving mice, rats, rabbits, and monkeys have found that retrograde amnesia occurs following damage to the hippocampus or anatomically related structures. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 103 Remembered recently learned objects better than objects learned many weeks earlier. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 104 Hippocampal formation seems to be essential for only a limited period of time, ranging from days to years depending on what is being remembered. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 104 As time passes after learning, memory is reorganized and stabilized. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 104 During the period of reorganization, the role of the hippocampal formation gradually diminishes, and a more permanent memory is established in other cortical areas that are independent of the hippocampal formation. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 Medial temporal lobe is not the permanent repository of spatial maps. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 Hippocampus and other structures in the medial temporal lobe are essential for the formation of long-term declarative memories, both spatial and non-spatial, but not for the retrieval of very remote memories, either spatial or non-spatial. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 Information is not first stored in the hippocampal formation and then gradually transferred to areas of cortex outside the hippocampus.  Memory is always in the cortical areas outside the hippocampus. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 After an event occurs, the medial temporal lobe rapidly stores links or pointers that connect it with the multiple cortical areas that together store a representation of the whole event. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 Medial temporal lobe is needed initially to support both storage and retrieval of the event, and it directs the gradual linking together in cortex of the neuronal ensembles that participate in the memory.  [Gestalts] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 105 Eventually, the network of interconnected cortical areas is able to support storage and retrieval without the help of medial temporal lobe structures. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Ultimately, long-term memory is stabilized by growth of the connections linking cortical areas. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Process of reorganization and stabilization can take days, months, or even years. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Episodic and semantic memory 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Semantic memory -- declarative memory for factual knowledge about objects, places, and odors. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Episodic memory is autobiographical memory for the events of one's life. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Episodic memories, unlike semantic memories, store spatial and temporal characteristics that identify the particular time and place when an event occurred. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 An episodic memory could involve the specific memory of going to a particular restaurant with a certain friend on a particular evening. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Both episodic and semantic memory are declarative; information is retrieved consciously. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Semantic knowledge accumulates in cortical storage sites simply as a consequence of experience and support from medial temporal lobe. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 106 Episodic memory requires cortical sites in conjunction with medial temporal lobes to work together with the frontal lobes to store when and where a past experience occurred. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Episodic memory is termed source memory; memory for where and when information was acquired. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Impaired source memory is one consequence of impaired frontal lobe function. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Source memory errors are rather common in young children and the elderly. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Frontal lobes are important for source memory, since they are slow to mature during development and are compromised to some extent during mental aging. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 It is not clear to what extent nonhuman animals have the capacity for episodic memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Animals usually do not express memory for past events in the same way that people can, as conscious autobiographical recollections of the past happenings. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Animals may express memory mainly as currently available factual knowledge. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Striking differences in the brains of humans and nonhuman animals in the much greater size and complexity of the human association cortex, including the frontal lobes. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Frontal cortex exerts 'top-down' control that biases neuronal activity in sensory cortex toward the relevant sensory information. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Top-down influence, when directed across all the sensory cortical areas that are anatomically linked to the frontal cortex, would virtually define what is unique about an event. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 107 Much of recollection works with top-down activity from higher centers feeding back upon upstream cortical areas to re-evoke the specific features of an image or idea. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Mice and rats have many of the characteristics of declarative memory that are evident in humans; they can remember complex relationships. 3
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Rodents form in the hippocampus a detailed internal representation, a cognitive map, of space.  [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Individual neurons of the hippocampus encode for space in their firing patterns. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Firing patterns of hippocampal neurons endow the animal with its ability to remember a given space. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Hippocampus or other components of the medial temporal lobe in humans does not interfere with memories that were stored long ago.  Patients like HM. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Hippocampus is only a temporary storage site for long-term memory, for periods ranging from days to months. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 It is convenient to think of the hippocampus having a binding function that binds together the storage sites that were established independently in several cortical regions, so that the storage sites are strongly connected with one another. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 We need the medial temporal lobe for a lengthy, but limited, period of time. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Ultimate storage site for long-term memory is the various areas of the cerebral cortex that initially process information about people, places, and objects. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 110 Most of what we know about the long-term storage mechanisms for declarative memory come from studies of the hippocampus. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 111 Hippocampus diagram -- excellent (diagram) -- information flows into and through the hippocampus by means of three principal pathways: (1) perforant pathway, which runs from the entorhinal cortex to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus; (2) mossy fiber pathway, which runs from the granule cells of the dentate gyrus to the pyramidal cells of CA3 region; (3) Schaffer collateral pathway, which runs from CA3 region to the CA1 region. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 111 Long-term potentiation (LTP), a type of facilitation, long-term facilitation. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 112 Long-term potentiation (LTP) as recorded in the Schaffer collateral pathway from CA3 to the CA1 region of the hippocampus (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 114 Role of the NMDA receptor and the induction of LTP (diagram) 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 117 Nitric oxide (NO) -- nitric oxide as a messenger. 3
Squire & Kandel; Memory 118 LTP and declarative memory 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 119 Knockout' mice 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 129 From short-term memory to long-term memory. 10
Squire & Kandel; Memory 131 Immediate memory refers to the information that occupies our current stream of thought. Immediate memory can be extended to last minutes or more by rehearsal. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 131 The extended transient phase of memory, which can last as long as an hour or even more, constitutes we call short-term memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 132 Boxer who suffers a brain concussion may remember going to the sporting event and even climbing into the ring, but everything from them on will be a blank. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 132 Formation of a long-term memory requires the making of new protein. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 135 Every cell in the human body contains precisely the same complement of genes. 3
Squire & Kandel; Memory 135 Differential or selective expression of the genes underlies all cellular specialization. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 136 In a typical cell, 80% of the genes are repressed, and only 20% are expressed. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 136 Serotonin regulates gene expression by activating special regulatory protein molecules that can turn genes on and off. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 136 Fully one fifth of all genes in the human genome encode proteins, both activators and repressors, that regulate the expression of other genes! 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 137 Upstream from a gene's coding region are the regulatory and promoter regions that control the initiation of gene transcription. (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 143 Long-term sensitization; two major sets of genetically induced changes in the sensory neurons: (1) persistent activity of a protein kinase, (2) growth of new synaptic connections.  (diagram) 6
Squire & Kandel; Memory 149 Long-term memory depends on changes in synaptic efficacy in multiple separate storage sites. The synaptic changes occur outside the medial temporal region and take some time to fully develop. 6
Squire & Kandel; Memory 150 Model for the early and late phases of LTP (diagram) 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 150 Terms "short-term" and "long-term" memory refer most usefully to behavioral categories, which depend not on stages of synaptic change but on how brain systems are organized to express synaptic changes in behavior. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 152 Declarative memory is memory that is directly accessible to conscious recollection. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 154 Both declarative and nondeclarative memory go through phases in memory storage. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Labile, short-term phase of memory and a stable, self-maintained, long-term phase. #REF!
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Repetition helps to convert the short-term to the long-term phase. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Short-term memory is achieved by modifying pre-existing proteins and strengthening pre-existing connections through the activity of one or another protein kinase. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Short-term forms of memory do not require new protein systnesis. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Long-term memory requires the activation of genes, new protein sysnthesis, and the growth of new synaptic connections. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Both nondeclarative and declarative memory seem to use a common molecular signaling cascade for communication from the synapse to the nucleus. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 The participants in this cascade include at least one second-messenger cAMP, two protein kinases, and the the transcription activator CREB-1. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Evolutionary conservatism underlying the molecular underpinnings of mental processes. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Simplist memory capabilities, those that appeared earliest in evolution; nondeclarative memories related to survival, feeding, mating, defense, and escape. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Evolution retained not just a set of genes and proteins, but entire signaling pathways and programs for switching ON and stabilizing synaptic connections. These entire signaling pathways and programs have been conserved from simple invertebrates, Drosophila and Aplysia, to complex mammals such as mice. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 155 Several types of nondeclarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 157 Information processing in the brain; much of what is processed is not accessible to conscious awareness. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 157 Conscious visual experience appears to be associated with processing in the ventarl stream. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 158 Dorsal stream processing, in the form of motor programs needed to reach for a pencil, is not accessible to awareness.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 159 Memory is not a single entity but is composed of different systems.  Only one of these systems is accessible to awareness, the declarative memory system. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 159 Some forms of memory, such as motor skill learning, are not accessible to awareness.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 159 Some simple forms of unconscious memory (habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning) can be studied in invertebrate animals with a relatively simple nervous systems. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 159 Three kinds of nondeclarative memory that are exhibited by humans and other vertebrate animals (priming, perceptual learning, emotional learning). 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 159 Whereas invertebrate animals seem to have available only nondeclarative memory, humans and other higher vertebrates have a strong capacity for declarative memory, but retain the capacity for nondeclarative memory as well. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 160 Priming refers to an improvement in the ability to detect or to identify words or objects after recent experience with them. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 160 Priming's key feature is that it is unconscious.  Its function is to improve the perception of recently encountered stimuli, but we need not be aware that the speed or efficiency of perception is improved. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 160 Priming can persist for an exceedingly long time even after a single experience. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 160 Priming is independent of the ability to consciously remember. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 160 Priming involves brain systems other than the medial temporal lobe system that is essential for declarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 162 Priming can be highly visual and occurs early in the visual processing pathways before the analysis of meaning. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 162 One simple way of thinking about priming is that for a period of time after a word or other perceptual object is presented, less neural activity is required to process that same word or object. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Perceptual priming occurs in the posterior cortex. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Sensory input makes contact with information in the posterior cortex within 100 ms after a stimulus is presented. The perceptual task might now be handled by a small ensemble of well-tuned neurons, and the result would be a net reduction in neural activity during priming. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Neural changes occur within the priming pathways well before information reaches the memory system of the medial temporal lobe, which is essential for declarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Neural changes that occur at early stages of processing can be thought of as changes that improve perception. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Neural changes that occur after the medial temporal lobe can be thought of as changes that help to create conscious declarative memory. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Perceptual learning 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Perceptual priming accurs after only a single exposure. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 Perceptual learning -- become more expert at discriminating some feature of a stimulus. [Learn Morse code for auditory stimuli] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 A training period of perceptual learning changes the structure of the sensory apparatus in the cortex that first receives information from the outside world. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 164 In the cases of habituation and sensitization, the ultimate long-term effect of experience is to change the structure of the brain. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 165 With practice, people can improve their ability to discriminate texture, direction of motion, line orientation, and many other simple visual attributes. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 166 Extraordinary specificity of perceptual learning suggests that the learning is occurring at early sensory processing stages in the visual cortex. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 166 The most likely locus of perceptual learning is early visual areas, V1 and V2. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 166 During perceptual lerning, some neurons may grow longer and brancher axons, increasing the strength and number of synaptic connections. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 167 Perceptual learning has long-lasting effects that occur with the processing pathways that ordinarily receive visual information. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 167 Visual experiences change the earliest cortical processing stations and affect the way we see. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 167 Expert is able to perceive differently from the novice. A part of the difference is likely the result of genetic makeup, but another important part is the result of practice. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 167 Most of the changes of perceptual learning are nondeclarative, occurring outside of awareness. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 167 Emotional learning 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 176 Motor skills 9
Squire & Kandel; Memory 177 Brain areas that are specifically activated during sequence learning include the sensorimotor cortex and two deep structures of the brain known to be involved in motor learning, the caudate nucleus and putamen (collectively known as the neostriatum). 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 It is not known where the memory trace of a motor skill is ultimately stored.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Carrying out a well practiced skill, such as driving a car, in a highly automatic way.[Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Areas of the brain involved in attention and awareness may be needed early in skill learning, and these areas may become less important as learning proceeds. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Prefrontal cortex tends to be engaged in early learning, which also engages the parietal cortex, an area known to be important for visual attention. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Cerebellum is important in earlier stages of motor skill learning. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Cerebellum is necessary for coordinating the specific repertoire of movements that are needed for well-executed, skilled motion and for organizing the timing of these movements. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and cerebellum are all engaged early in motor skill learning. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 After practice with the skill, the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and cerebellum all showed less activity, and other structures, including the motor cortex and nearby supplementary motor cortex, become more engaged.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Motor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, and neostriatum may be the structures that store the skill-based information in long-term memory that allow the smooth execution of skilled movements.  [Stereotyped motor programs]  [FAPs] 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 178 Habit learning 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 181 Perceptual and cognitive skills 3
Squire & Kandel; Memory 183 Much of what we call "intuition" is probably learned and is based on non-declarative memory. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 183 Learning about categories 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 183 Much of our knowledge about the world is in the form of categories. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 183 People can acquire knowledge about categories implicitly. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 185 Brain systems supporting the ability to categorize must operate in parallel with and independently of the brain system that supports declarative memory. 2
Squire & Kandel; Memory 185 Category learning of visual stimuli takes place largely in the cortical areas that are dedicated to visual information processing. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 188 Cerebellum cortex diagram.
Squire & Kandel; Memory 190 Classical conditioning and declarative memory 5
Squire & Kandel; Memory 195 Biological basis of individuality 5
Squire & Kandel; Memory 196 Identical twins, who share identical genes, will not have identical brains because they are certain to have somewhat different life experiences. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 196 Precise patterns of connections between neurons and the strength of their connections will differ among individuals. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 197 Body surface is represented on the surface of the brain as a sensory map. 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 200 Both learning and development may involve activity-dependent changes in the effectiveness of neural connections that result ultimately in anatomical changes in the brain. 3
Squire & Kandel; Memory 201 Age and declining memory 1
Squire & Kandel; Memory 205 Amphetamine or caffeine can enhance cognitive performance. Whether memory can be improved beyond what one can do with a good cup of coffee. 4
Squire & Kandel; Memory 205 Ability to retain new memories depends critically on the hippocampus and related structures. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 212 Learning feelings of like or dislike requires the amygdala; learning habits requires the neostriatum; learning a discrete motor response to a conditioned stimulus requires the cerebellum. 7
Squire & Kandel; Memory 212 Declarative memory depends on the convergence of input from distributed cortical sites into the medial temporal lobe and ultimately into the hippocampus, and the convergence of this input with other activity that identifies the time and place of the event. 0
Squire & Kandel; Memory 212 Convergence of input from distributed cortical sites establishes a flexible representation such that the experience is remembered as part of a previous episode. 0