| Squire & Kandel; Memory | |||||
| Book | Page | Topic | |||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 8 | Carl Lashley (1890-1958) (photo) | |||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 9 | Many forms of memory require one or another of the subcortical regions. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 9 | No singel center in the brain where all memories are permanently stored. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 9 | Many parts of the brain must participate in the representation of memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 10 | Donald Hebb (1904-1985) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 11 | Four lobes of the human brain (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 11 | Patient HM | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 12 | Brenda Milner (photo) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 19 | Gene knockout mice | 7 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 23 | In 1957 Brenda Milner first described a catastrophic memory loss in patient HM. | 4 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 25 | Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) (photo) | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 26 | Habituation -- simplest case of nondeclarative memory. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 26 | Habituation is learning to recognize, and ignore as familiar, unimportant stimuli that are monotonously repetitive. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 28 | Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) (photo) | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 30 | Variety of types of neurons in the brain (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 32 | Presynaptic cell and postsynaptic cell (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 33 | Chemical signal passes from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 47 | Molecules for short-term memory. | 14 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 51 | Ionotropic receptor; Metabotropic receptor (diagram) | 4 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 55 | Biochemical steps in the presynaptic facilitation of the sensory neuron (diagram) | 4 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 63 | Presynaptic component of sensitization and classical conditioning (diagram) | 8 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 64 | Postsynaptic component of the molecular mechanism contributing to classical conditioning (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 69 | Declarative memory | 5 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 83 | Brain systems for declarative memory | 14 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | William James (1841-1910) (photo) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | Cognitive psychologists subdivide short-term memory into two major components -- immediate memory and working memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | Immediate memory refers to what can be held actively in mind that forms the focus of current attention and that occupies the current stream of thought. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | Capacity of immediate memory is quite limited (it can hold approximately 7 items), and unless its contents are rehearsed, it ordinarily persists for less than 30 seconds. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | Ordinarily, information will slip from your conscious mind within a few seconds, but immediate memory can be extended in time and its contents retained for many minutes if you rehearse actively. This extension of immediate memory is called working memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | Working memory is an extension of immediate memory by rehearsing. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 84 | An object or fact can be represented initially as immediate memory, its representation can be sustained in working memory, and it can ultimately persist as long term memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Immediate memory and working memory are best thought of as a collection of temporary memory capacities that operate in parallel. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | One kind of working memory, the phonological loop, is concerned with language and temporarily stores spoken words and meaningful sounds. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Another kind of working memory, the visuospatial sketch pad, stores visual images such as faces and spatial layouts. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Working memory may consist of a relatively large number of temporary capacities, each a property of one of the brains specialized information processing systems. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Activity of single neurons from area TE, a higher order visual area in the temporal lobe, are thought to be important for perception of visual objects. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Neurons that exhibit sustained activation while an animal is holding an item of sensory information in temporary memory have been found in visual cortex, auditory cortex, and sensorimotor cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Frontal lobes are essential for performing tasks that require holding information in mind for impending action, as well as for retrieving information when memory is being reconstructed. [Fuster's perception-action cycle] [Edelman's dynamic core] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 85 | Holding function of frontal lobes involves what cognitive psychologists mean by the term 'working memory'. Frontal lobes hold material in working memory to guide ongoing behavior and cognition. [Fuster's perception-action cycle] [Edelman's dynamic core] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 86 | Neural activity and working memory; delayed matching to sample; monkey (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 86 | Frontal cortex has reciprocal anatomical connections with most of the visual areas of the brain, including area TE. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 87 | Frontal cortex and sensory cortices work together as a neuronal system to perceive information and then hold it in working memory for temporary use. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 87 | Frontal cortex receives sensory information from upstream cortical areas and then -- depending on attention, motivation, and overall direction of behavior -- provides feedback to some subset of these areas, directing them to hold information in mind for impending action, for comprehension and planning, or possibly for integration into long-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 87 | Cortical visual areas and some of their connections to major pathways from area V1. Processing stream for analyzing the visual form and quality of objects follows a ventral route into the temporal lobe. Processing stream for analyzing object location follows the dorsal root into the parietal lobe. (diagram) | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Dorsal route from area V1 forward to the parietal cortex is concerned with the locations of objects in space, the spatial relationships between objects, and the computations needed to reach particular locations in space. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Each station along the ventral and dorsal streams contributes in a specialized way to the processing of information necessary for visual perception. Some areas analyze color, others analyze direction of motion, still others analyze depth or orientation. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | The more forward areas tend be more involved with the analysis of whole percepts such as objects. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Areas distributed throughout both ventral and dorsal streams are activated simultaneously when we perceive an object in space. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | What is perceived can persist as working memory when there is sustained neural activity in the same regions, and coordination with activity in the frontal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Long-term memory is a process that depends crucially on structures in the medial temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Medial temporal lobe is not the ultimate long-term repository of memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Long-term memories are stored in the same distributed set of structures that receive, process, and analyze what is to be remembered. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Memory for a recently encountered object would be distributed among area TE in the temporal lobe, area PG in the parietal lobe, and other areas. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Persistent changes occur in the strengths of connections among neurons, which respond differently after learning. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Aggregate activity in the collection of altered neurons comprises the long-term memory of what was perceived. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Same brain areas appear to be used for long-term memory as are used for visual perception and intermediate memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 88 | Studies of brain injured patients support the idea that different regions of the brain are involved in storing different kinds of memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 89 | Damage to the left temporal parietal region of the human brain or to the left frontal parietal region can produce remarkably selective losses of category specific knowledge. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 89 | Particular sensory and motor systems that are used to learn about the world influence where in the brain information is ultimately stored. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 90 | People learn about living things and large, outdoor objects primarily through vision, and many of the brain systems that process shape, color, and visual recognition located within the temporal lobe. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 90 | People learn about in inanimate objects like tools and furniture through processing systems that concern manual interaction and understanding of function; these processing systems are located within the parietal lobe and in the frontal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Visual processing pathways in the visual cortex converge on a number of targets, including the cortex of the frontal lobe and the medial surface of the temporal lobe. If any single one of the visual processing areas is damaged, the result is a specific impairment in perception. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | One lesion may cause a difficulty in the perception of motion and another a difficulty and perception of faces. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | A damaged medial temporal lobe does not impair perception at all. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Damage to the medial temporal lobe impairs all of declarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Memory is a normal consequence of perception. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Medial temporal lobe allows for the lasting effects of perceptual experience that we called memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes produces a severe and selective impairment in declarative memory, a clinical syndrome known as amnesia. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Damage to the medial temporal lobes may produce amnesia. The cognitive deficit is similar following surgical removal, head injury, stroke, ischemia, anoxia or disease. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Alzheimer's disease typically begins with symptoms of memory impairment; degenerative brain changes characteristic of the disease first appear in the medial temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Chronic alcoholism can also result in an amnesic condition, because years of alcohol abuse damage the medial thalamus and the hypothalamus, areas with anatomical connections to the medial temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 91 | Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobe; patient perceives the material normally and holds it satisfactorily in immediate memory; material cannot persist in long-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | When a person perceives information via the senses, the material is available so long as it remains in view or is otherwise available to the senses so that it can be perceived. It remains available for use so long as it is being rehearsed and held in working memory. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Damage to the medial temporal lobe spares immediate memory and working memory, because these early-stage forms of memory depend on areas of cortex outside the medial temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | After a few seconds, immediate memory or working memory can no longer support recollection unless the information is maintained by rehearsal. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Medial temporal lobe is essential for memory storage and retrieval. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Effects of medial temporal lobe lesions were first described in the 1950s. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Brenda Milner's studies and later experimental work eventually made a convincing case that memory was a separable and isolated function of the brain. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Memory impaired patients could perform normally virtually all functions that do not require new learning. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Memory impaired patients perform well on tests that make large demands on their perceptual abilities. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Digit span test. Amnesiac patients and controls subject both repeat back an average of 6.8 digits. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 92 | Deficits in long-term memory of amnesic patients can be severe. Any complex activity presents a challenge because following the correct sequence of steps places a burden on memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | MRI imaging has revealed the extent of the areas surgically removed in the amnesic patient HM (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | Functional amnesia is often described as a loss of personal identity. It is much rarer than the amnesia that results from brain damage | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | Function amnesias typically do not impair new learning capacity. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | Principal symptom of functional amnesia is loss of memory for the past. Some patients lose personal, autobiographical memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | Sometimes functional amnesia passes, and lost memories are recovered. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 93 | Medial temporal lobe is a large region of the brain; it includes the amygdala, the hippocampus, and surrounding cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 94 | Hippocampus, amygdala diagram -- excellent (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Medial temporal lobe and memory. Three distinct areas: entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex. | 4 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Major projections into the hippocampus originate in the entorhinal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Entorhinal cortex receives information from elsewhere in the cortex, approximately two thirds of it from the adjacent perirhinal and parahippocampal cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex receive information from and send information to a broad extent of cortex. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Direct damage to the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices impairs memory even more severely than damage to the hippocampal region itself. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 98 | Perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices contribute to declarative memory; information need not reach the hippocampus for some memory to be stored. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Pathways into and out of the medial temporal lobe memory system. Parahippocampal cortex; Entorhinal cortex; Perirhinal cortex; Subiculum; Hippocampus (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Good correspondence among the findings for all the well-studied mammalian species: rats, monkeys, and humans. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Declarative memory is well adapted for forming conjunctions (or associations) between two arbitrarily different stimuli. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Declarative memory functions to represent objects and events in the external world and the relationships between them. [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Flexibility of representations -- animals can learn relations among stored items and then expressed this relational knowledge in novel situations. [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 99 | Flexibility of declarative memory, and the relative inflexibility of nondeclarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 100 | Morris water maze | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 101 | Non-declarative, stimulus-response memory sometimes called habit learning. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 101 | Habit memory can only retrace the same path on each succeeding trial. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 101 | Hippocampus of rats constructs a rich representation of space. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 101 | Rats learning associations between odors. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 102 | Hippocampus serves a general memory function in rats, just as it does in humans. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 102 | Memory is not fixed at the time of learning but takes considerable time to develop its permanent form. Fixation process. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 102 | Much of the memory fixation process is completed during the first few hours after learning. But the process extends well beyond this point and involves continuous changes in the organization of long-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 102 | Can take several years for a memory to become stabilized. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 102 | People remember material learned recently better than material learned long ago. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 103 | Memory grows gradually resistant to disruption over a relatively long period. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 103 | For patient HM, retrograde amnesia of several years together with intact memory for remote events. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 103 | Studies involving mice, rats, rabbits, and monkeys have found that retrograde amnesia occurs following damage to the hippocampus or anatomically related structures. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 103 | Remembered recently learned objects better than objects learned many weeks earlier. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 104 | Hippocampal formation seems to be essential for only a limited period of time, ranging from days to years depending on what is being remembered. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 104 | As time passes after learning, memory is reorganized and stabilized. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 104 | During the period of reorganization, the role of the hippocampal formation gradually diminishes, and a more permanent memory is established in other cortical areas that are independent of the hippocampal formation. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | Medial temporal lobe is not the permanent repository of spatial maps. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | Hippocampus and other structures in the medial temporal lobe are essential for the formation of long-term declarative memories, both spatial and non-spatial, but not for the retrieval of very remote memories, either spatial or non-spatial. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | Information is not first stored in the hippocampal formation and then gradually transferred to areas of cortex outside the hippocampus. Memory is always in the cortical areas outside the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | After an event occurs, the medial temporal lobe rapidly stores links or pointers that connect it with the multiple cortical areas that together store a representation of the whole event. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | Medial temporal lobe is needed initially to support both storage and retrieval of the event, and it directs the gradual linking together in cortex of the neuronal ensembles that participate in the memory. [Gestalts] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 105 | Eventually, the network of interconnected cortical areas is able to support storage and retrieval without the help of medial temporal lobe structures. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Ultimately, long-term memory is stabilized by growth of the connections linking cortical areas. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Process of reorganization and stabilization can take days, months, or even years. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Episodic and semantic memory | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Semantic memory -- declarative memory for factual knowledge about objects, places, and odors. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Episodic memory is autobiographical memory for the events of one's life. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Episodic memories, unlike semantic memories, store spatial and temporal characteristics that identify the particular time and place when an event occurred. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | An episodic memory could involve the specific memory of going to a particular restaurant with a certain friend on a particular evening. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Both episodic and semantic memory are declarative; information is retrieved consciously. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Semantic knowledge accumulates in cortical storage sites simply as a consequence of experience and support from medial temporal lobe. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 106 | Episodic memory requires cortical sites in conjunction with medial temporal lobes to work together with the frontal lobes to store when and where a past experience occurred. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Episodic memory is termed source memory; memory for where and when information was acquired. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Impaired source memory is one consequence of impaired frontal lobe function. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Source memory errors are rather common in young children and the elderly. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Frontal lobes are important for source memory, since they are slow to mature during development and are compromised to some extent during mental aging. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | It is not clear to what extent nonhuman animals have the capacity for episodic memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Animals usually do not express memory for past events in the same way that people can, as conscious autobiographical recollections of the past happenings. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Animals may express memory mainly as currently available factual knowledge. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Striking differences in the brains of humans and nonhuman animals in the much greater size and complexity of the human association cortex, including the frontal lobes. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Frontal cortex exerts 'top-down' control that biases neuronal activity in sensory cortex toward the relevant sensory information. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Top-down influence, when directed across all the sensory cortical areas that are anatomically linked to the frontal cortex, would virtually define what is unique about an event. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 107 | Much of recollection works with top-down activity from higher centers feeding back upon upstream cortical areas to re-evoke the specific features of an image or idea. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Mice and rats have many of the characteristics of declarative memory that are evident in humans; they can remember complex relationships. | 3 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Rodents form in the hippocampus a detailed internal representation, a cognitive map, of space. [Llinás, Brain operates as a reality emulator.] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Individual neurons of the hippocampus encode for space in their firing patterns. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Firing patterns of hippocampal neurons endow the animal with its ability to remember a given space. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Hippocampus or other components of the medial temporal lobe in humans does not interfere with memories that were stored long ago. Patients like HM. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Hippocampus is only a temporary storage site for long-term memory, for periods ranging from days to months. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | It is convenient to think of the hippocampus having a binding function that binds together the storage sites that were established independently in several cortical regions, so that the storage sites are strongly connected with one another. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | We need the medial temporal lobe for a lengthy, but limited, period of time. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Ultimate storage site for long-term memory is the various areas of the cerebral cortex that initially process information about people, places, and objects. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 110 | Most of what we know about the long-term storage mechanisms for declarative memory come from studies of the hippocampus. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 111 | Hippocampus diagram -- excellent (diagram) -- information flows into and through the hippocampus by means of three principal pathways: (1) perforant pathway, which runs from the entorhinal cortex to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus; (2) mossy fiber pathway, which runs from the granule cells of the dentate gyrus to the pyramidal cells of CA3 region; (3) Schaffer collateral pathway, which runs from CA3 region to the CA1 region. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 111 | Long-term potentiation (LTP), a type of facilitation, long-term facilitation. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 112 | Long-term potentiation (LTP) as recorded in the Schaffer collateral pathway from CA3 to the CA1 region of the hippocampus (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 114 | Role of the NMDA receptor and the induction of LTP (diagram) | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 117 | Nitric oxide (NO) -- nitric oxide as a messenger. | 3 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 118 | LTP and declarative memory | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 119 | Knockout' mice | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 129 | From short-term memory to long-term memory. | 10 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 131 | Immediate memory refers to the information that occupies our current stream of thought. Immediate memory can be extended to last minutes or more by rehearsal. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 131 | The extended transient phase of memory, which can last as long as an hour or even more, constitutes we call short-term memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 132 | Boxer who suffers a brain concussion may remember going to the sporting event and even climbing into the ring, but everything from them on will be a blank. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 132 | Formation of a long-term memory requires the making of new protein. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 135 | Every cell in the human body contains precisely the same complement of genes. | 3 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 135 | Differential or selective expression of the genes underlies all cellular specialization. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 136 | In a typical cell, 80% of the genes are repressed, and only 20% are expressed. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 136 | Serotonin regulates gene expression by activating special regulatory protein molecules that can turn genes on and off. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 136 | Fully one fifth of all genes in the human genome encode proteins, both activators and repressors, that regulate the expression of other genes! | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 137 | Upstream from a gene's coding region are the regulatory and promoter regions that control the initiation of gene transcription. (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 143 | Long-term sensitization; two major sets of genetically induced changes in the sensory neurons: (1) persistent activity of a protein kinase, (2) growth of new synaptic connections. (diagram) | 6 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 149 | Long-term memory depends on changes in synaptic efficacy in multiple separate storage sites. The synaptic changes occur outside the medial temporal region and take some time to fully develop. | 6 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 150 | Model for the early and late phases of LTP (diagram) | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 150 | Terms "short-term" and "long-term" memory refer most usefully to behavioral categories, which depend not on stages of synaptic change but on how brain systems are organized to express synaptic changes in behavior. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 152 | Declarative memory is memory that is directly accessible to conscious recollection. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 154 | Both declarative and nondeclarative memory go through phases in memory storage. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Labile, short-term phase of memory and a stable, self-maintained, long-term phase. | #REF! | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Repetition helps to convert the short-term to the long-term phase. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Short-term memory is achieved by modifying pre-existing proteins and strengthening pre-existing connections through the activity of one or another protein kinase. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Short-term forms of memory do not require new protein systnesis. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Long-term memory requires the activation of genes, new protein sysnthesis, and the growth of new synaptic connections. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Both nondeclarative and declarative memory seem to use a common molecular signaling cascade for communication from the synapse to the nucleus. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | The participants in this cascade include at least one second-messenger cAMP, two protein kinases, and the the transcription activator CREB-1. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Evolutionary conservatism underlying the molecular underpinnings of mental processes. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Simplist memory capabilities, those that appeared earliest in evolution; nondeclarative memories related to survival, feeding, mating, defense, and escape. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Evolution retained not just a set of genes and proteins, but entire signaling pathways and programs for switching ON and stabilizing synaptic connections. These entire signaling pathways and programs have been conserved from simple invertebrates, Drosophila and Aplysia, to complex mammals such as mice. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 155 | Several types of nondeclarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 157 | Information processing in the brain; much of what is processed is not accessible to conscious awareness. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 157 | Conscious visual experience appears to be associated with processing in the ventarl stream. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 158 | Dorsal stream processing, in the form of motor programs needed to reach for a pencil, is not accessible to awareness. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 159 | Memory is not a single entity but is composed of different systems. Only one of these systems is accessible to awareness, the declarative memory system. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 159 | Some forms of memory, such as motor skill learning, are not accessible to awareness. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 159 | Some simple forms of unconscious memory (habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning) can be studied in invertebrate animals with a relatively simple nervous systems. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 159 | Three kinds of nondeclarative memory that are exhibited by humans and other vertebrate animals (priming, perceptual learning, emotional learning). | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 159 | Whereas invertebrate animals seem to have available only nondeclarative memory, humans and other higher vertebrates have a strong capacity for declarative memory, but retain the capacity for nondeclarative memory as well. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 160 | Priming refers to an improvement in the ability to detect or to identify words or objects after recent experience with them. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 160 | Priming's key feature is that it is unconscious. Its function is to improve the perception of recently encountered stimuli, but we need not be aware that the speed or efficiency of perception is improved. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 160 | Priming can persist for an exceedingly long time even after a single experience. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 160 | Priming is independent of the ability to consciously remember. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 160 | Priming involves brain systems other than the medial temporal lobe system that is essential for declarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 162 | Priming can be highly visual and occurs early in the visual processing pathways before the analysis of meaning. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 162 | One simple way of thinking about priming is that for a period of time after a word or other perceptual object is presented, less neural activity is required to process that same word or object. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Perceptual priming occurs in the posterior cortex. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Sensory input makes contact with information in the posterior cortex within 100 ms after a stimulus is presented. The perceptual task might now be handled by a small ensemble of well-tuned neurons, and the result would be a net reduction in neural activity during priming. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Neural changes occur within the priming pathways well before information reaches the memory system of the medial temporal lobe, which is essential for declarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Neural changes that occur at early stages of processing can be thought of as changes that improve perception. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Neural changes that occur after the medial temporal lobe can be thought of as changes that help to create conscious declarative memory. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Perceptual learning | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Perceptual priming accurs after only a single exposure. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | Perceptual learning -- become more expert at discriminating some feature of a stimulus. [Learn Morse code for auditory stimuli] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | A training period of perceptual learning changes the structure of the sensory apparatus in the cortex that first receives information from the outside world. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 164 | In the cases of habituation and sensitization, the ultimate long-term effect of experience is to change the structure of the brain. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 165 | With practice, people can improve their ability to discriminate texture, direction of motion, line orientation, and many other simple visual attributes. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 166 | Extraordinary specificity of perceptual learning suggests that the learning is occurring at early sensory processing stages in the visual cortex. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 166 | The most likely locus of perceptual learning is early visual areas, V1 and V2. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 166 | During perceptual lerning, some neurons may grow longer and brancher axons, increasing the strength and number of synaptic connections. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 167 | Perceptual learning has long-lasting effects that occur with the processing pathways that ordinarily receive visual information. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 167 | Visual experiences change the earliest cortical processing stations and affect the way we see. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 167 | Expert is able to perceive differently from the novice. A part of the difference is likely the result of genetic makeup, but another important part is the result of practice. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 167 | Most of the changes of perceptual learning are nondeclarative, occurring outside of awareness. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 167 | Emotional learning | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 176 | Motor skills | 9 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 177 | Brain areas that are specifically activated during sequence learning include the sensorimotor cortex and two deep structures of the brain known to be involved in motor learning, the caudate nucleus and putamen (collectively known as the neostriatum). | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | It is not known where the memory trace of a motor skill is ultimately stored. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Carrying out a well practiced skill, such as driving a car, in a highly automatic way.[Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Areas of the brain involved in attention and awareness may be needed early in skill learning, and these areas may become less important as learning proceeds. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Prefrontal cortex tends to be engaged in early learning, which also engages the parietal cortex, an area known to be important for visual attention. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Cerebellum is important in earlier stages of motor skill learning. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Cerebellum is necessary for coordinating the specific repertoire of movements that are needed for well-executed, skilled motion and for organizing the timing of these movements. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and cerebellum are all engaged early in motor skill learning. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | After practice with the skill, the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and cerebellum all showed less activity, and other structures, including the motor cortex and nearby supplementary motor cortex, become more engaged. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Motor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, and neostriatum may be the structures that store the skill-based information in long-term memory that allow the smooth execution of skilled movements. [Stereotyped motor programs] [FAPs] | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 178 | Habit learning | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 181 | Perceptual and cognitive skills | 3 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 183 | Much of what we call "intuition" is probably learned and is based on non-declarative memory. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 183 | Learning about categories | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 183 | Much of our knowledge about the world is in the form of categories. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 183 | People can acquire knowledge about categories implicitly. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 185 | Brain systems supporting the ability to categorize must operate in parallel with and independently of the brain system that supports declarative memory. | 2 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 185 | Category learning of visual stimuli takes place largely in the cortical areas that are dedicated to visual information processing. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 188 | Cerebellum cortex diagram. | |||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 190 | Classical conditioning and declarative memory | 5 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 195 | Biological basis of individuality | 5 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 196 | Identical twins, who share identical genes, will not have identical brains because they are certain to have somewhat different life experiences. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 196 | Precise patterns of connections between neurons and the strength of their connections will differ among individuals. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 197 | Body surface is represented on the surface of the brain as a sensory map. | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 200 | Both learning and development may involve activity-dependent changes in the effectiveness of neural connections that result ultimately in anatomical changes in the brain. | 3 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 201 | Age and declining memory | 1 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 205 | Amphetamine or caffeine can enhance cognitive performance. Whether memory can be improved beyond what one can do with a good cup of coffee. | 4 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 205 | Ability to retain new memories depends critically on the hippocampus and related structures. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 212 | Learning feelings of like or dislike requires the amygdala; learning habits requires the neostriatum; learning a discrete motor response to a conditioned stimulus requires the cerebellum. | 7 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 212 | Declarative memory depends on the convergence of input from distributed cortical sites into the medial temporal lobe and ultimately into the hippocampus, and the convergence of this input with other activity that identifies the time and place of the event. | 0 | ||
| Squire & Kandel; Memory | 212 | Convergence of input from distributed cortical sites establishes a flexible representation such that the experience is remembered as part of a previous episode. | 0 | ||