Squire,
et.al.; Fundamental Neuroscience |
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Book |
Page |
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Topic |
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Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
15 |
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Architecture of the nervous
system |
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Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
49 |
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Cellular components of nervous
tissue |
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34 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
79 |
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Subcellular organization of the
nervous system: Organelles and their functions |
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30 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
115 |
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Electrotonic properties of axons
and dendrites |
|
36 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
140 |
|
Membrane potential and Action
potential |
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25 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
163 |
|
Neurotransmitters |
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23 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
166 |
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The term classical
neurotransmitters is used to differentiate acetylcholine, the biogenic amines, and the amino acid transmitters from other
transmitters. |
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3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
167 |
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Catecholamines include three transmitters -- dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. |
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1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
176 |
|
Serotonin |
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9 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
179 |
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GABA, the
major inhibitory neurotransmitter |
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3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
183 |
|
Acetylcholine |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
186 |
|
About a
dozen classical transmitters and dozens of neuropeptides function as transmitters. |
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3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
186 |
|
Several different factors,
ranging from intracellular localization of transmitters to the different firing rates and patterns of neurons, probably contribute to the need for multiple transmitters. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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Perhaps the simplest explanation
for multiple transmitters is
that many afferent nerve terminals synapse onto a single neuron. A neuron must be able to distinguish between the multiple inputs that bring
information to it. |
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1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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The need to distinguish
between multiple inputs to a neuron can be met in
part by segregating a
place on the neuron
at which an input terminates, the soma, axon, dendrite. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
|
Because many afferents
terminate in close
proximity, another means of distinguishing inputs and their
information is necessary -- chemical coding of the inputs. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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Information conveyed by distinct transmitters is distinguished by the different receptors present on the targeted neuron. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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A single
neuron can use more
than one neurotransmitter. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
|
Few, if
any, neurons contain only one transmitter, and in many
cases three or more transmitters are found in a single neuron. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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The presence of multiple transmitters in a single neuron may indicate that different transmitters are used by
a neuron to signal
different functional states to its target cell. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
|
The firing rates of the neurons
that terminate on a postsynaptic cell differ considerably, and it may be
useful to encode fast firing by one transmitter and slower firing by a
transmitter in the cell. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
|
The firing
patterns of neurons is a means of conveying
information. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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A neuron
firing at five times
per second can reflect a neuron discharge every 200 ms or, alternatively, a cell
that fires a burst of five
discharges during an initial 200 ms, followed by 800 ms of silence. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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Peptide transmitters are often released at
higher firing rates
and particularly under burst firing patterns. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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Classical transmitters can be replaced rapidly because their synthesis occurs in nerve terminals. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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Peptide transmitters must be synthesized in the cell body and transported to the terminal. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
187 |
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It is useful to conserve peptide transmitters for situations
of high demand
because they would otherwise be depleted rapidly. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
191 |
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Peptide transmitters differ from classical
transmitters by being synthesized
in the soma rather than axon terminal. |
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4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
191 |
|
Termination
of peptide
transmitter actions
differs from that of classical transmitters, being achieved mainly by enzymatic means and diffusion, and there is much less specificity in the inactivation of peptide transmitters. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
193 |
|
Growth factors are a group of proteins that regulate the survival,
differentiation, and
growth of various
cell types, including neurons. |
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2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
197 |
|
Release of Neurotransmitters |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
259 |
|
Intracellular Signaling |
|
62 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Postsynaptic potentials and
Synaptic Integration |
|
40 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) in the CNS can be divided into two
broad classes on the basis of mechanisms and duration of these potentials. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Ionotropic receptors involved direct binding of a transmitter molecule(s) with the receptor channel complex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Ionotropic PSPs are generally short-lasting and are called fast PSPs. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Metabotropic PSPs involve the indirect binding of a transmitter molecule(s) with a receptor. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Metabotropic PSPs can be
long-lasting and are called slow PSPs. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Tap of a neurologist hammer to a ligament
elicits a reflex extension of the leg.
Ionotropic PSPs. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
299 |
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Sensory neurons with stomata located in the dorsal root
ganglia just outside the spinal column. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
300 |
|
Inhibition
of the flexion motor neuron tends to prevent an uncoordinated movement. |
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1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
300 |
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Transmitter
substance at the neuromuscular junction is ACh. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Acetylcholine, glutamate, and lysine remain
bound only for a very
short period.
These transmitters are removed by diffusion, enzymatic breakdown,
reuptake into the presynaptic
cell. |
|
12 |
Squire;
Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
|
In contrast with fast PSP
for which the receptors
are actually part of the ion channel complex, channels that produce slow
synaptic potentials are not
coupled directly to the transmitter
receptors.
Rather, the receptors are separated physically and exert their actions indirectly through changes in metabolism of specific second-messenger systems. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
|
In the cAMP-dependent, slow synaptic
responses in Aplysia, transmitter binding to membrane receptors activates G-proteins and stimulates an increase in the synthesis of cAMP. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Cyclic AMP then leads to the activation of cAMP-dependent
protein kinase (PKA), which phosphorylates a channel
protein associated with the channel. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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A conformational
change in the channel is produced, leading to a change in ionic conductance. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Conformational change is produced by protein
phosphorylation. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Phosphorylation-dependent channel regulation is a fairly
general feature of slow PSPs. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Second messenger systems are slow (seconds to minutes). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Cyclic AMP takes some time to be synthesized, but after synthesis, cAMP levels can remain elevated for a relatively long period (minutes). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
|
Duration of
the elevation of cAMP
depends on the action of cAMP-phosphodiesterase, which breaks down cAMP. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
|
Response of
metabotropic receptors
depend on both (1) synthetic and phosphorylation processes, and
(2) degradative and dephosphorylation processes. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Second messengers and protein
kinases can diffuse and affect more distant membrane
channels. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
312 |
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Protein kinase A can diffuse to the nucleus, where it can activate proteins that regulate gene expression. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
314 |
|
In contrast to the rapid responses mediated by ionotropic receptors, responses mediated by the metabotropic
receptors are generally relatively slow to develop and persistent. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
314 |
|
Metabotropic responses can involve the activation of second-messenger systems. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
314 |
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By producing slow
changes in the resting
potential, metabotropic
receptors provide
long-term modulation of the effectiveness of responses
generated by ionotropic receptors. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
314 |
|
Metabotropic receptors, through the engagement of second-messenger
systems, provide a vehicle by which a presynaptic cell can produce widespread changes in the biochemical state of the postsynaptic cell. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
319 |
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Information Processing in Complex Dendrites. |
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5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
339 |
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Brain energy metabolism |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
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Neural induction and Pattern formation |
|
24 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
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Embryonic origins of the nervous system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
|
Vertebrate nervous system is a derivative of the ectoderm: one of the three major regions, or germ layers, of the blastula-stage embryo. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
|
As the embryo undergoes gastrulation, two other germ layers, endoderm and mesoderm, invaginate inward, leaving the ectoderm on the surface and converting the embryo into three layers. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
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Dorsoventral (DV) and anterioposterior
(AP) axes |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
363 |
|
Early stages
of neural development involve
processes that divide ectoderm into regions along the DV axis that then give rise to very different tissues, including
the nervous system. |
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0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
365 |
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Blastula
stage, ball of cells |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
365 |
|
During gastrulation,
mesoderm and endoderm invaginate into the embryos while
the ectoderm spreads and covers the outside. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
370 |
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Eye formation |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Molecular basis of differential cell adhesion may reside within a subfamily of
glycoproteins called cadherins. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Cadherin's intracellular domain connects to the actin-based
cytocellular network. Their extracellular domains bind homotypically, mediating the interaction of adjacent cells expressing the same cadherin type. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Different cadherin types may account for differential adhesion that arises
when new tissues form
and may account for the differences between
subregions of the central
nervous system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
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As the neural
plate rolls up and closes into a tube, a series of constrictions appear in its wall, subdividing the anterior end of the tube into a series of vesicles representing the fore-, mid-, and hindbrain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Huge diversity
of region-specific
cell types, each having a distinct identity in terms of morphology, axonal trajectory, synaptic specificity, and neurotransmitter. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
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Different neuronal cell types carry distinctive
surface labels that may ensure accuracy of axonal navigation and the formation of appropriate connections with other cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Some young
neurons or their precursors are directed to migrate along stereotypic paths to settle in distant locations. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
|
Activity-dependent processes and regressive events, such as pruning of axons and cell death, later reinforce and refine initial patterns of conductivity, but a high degree of precision is achieved from the outset, resulting from appropriate self-patterning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
371 |
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How the different
regions of the CNS, and the individual cell types they each contain, are assigned
their identity in early
development remains an outstanding
problem and neurobiology. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
372 |
|
Homeobox genes encode the positional value of
the cell. In effect, cells measure
their position by reading the strength of signals and finally adopt a
specific fate that is appropriate for their grid reference in the
neuroepithelium. |
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1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
391 |
|
Neurogenesis
and Migration |
|
19 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
417 |
|
Cellular Determination |
|
26 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
449 |
|
Growth Cones
and Axon Pathfinding |
|
32 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
449 |
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Growth Cones Are Actively Guided |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
449 |
|
Growth cones
crawl forward as they elaborate
the axons trailing behind them, and their extension is controlled by cues in their outside environment that ultimately direct them toward
their appropriate
targets. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
451 |
|
In some circumstances, individual axons arborize widely within the target field and initially contact many target
cells, only later
refining their pattern
of connections in a process that depends on precise patterns of electrical activity in the neurons and target cells. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
451 |
|
Guidance Cues
for Developing Axons |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
451 |
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The trajectories of many axons appear to be broken up into short segments, each perhaps a few microns long. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Axons
appear to be guided
along their appropriate trajectories by their responses to selectively distributed molecular signals within the developing embryo. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Axon guidance
involves the coordinate action of four types of cues -- short range (or local) cues and long-range cues, each of which can be either positive (attractive) or negative (repellent). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Four prominent families of signaling molecules are thought to make significant contributions to axon guidance -- semaphorins, netrins, slits, and ephrins. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Guidance cues
come in families, which may in some cases comprise both diffusible members that can function in long-range axon guidance, as well as non-diffusible members functioning at short range. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Many guidance cues are multifunctional, attracting some axons, repelling other axons, and sometimes controlling
other aspects of axonal
morphogenesis such is axonal
branching or arborization. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Different axons may respond to the same cue
differently because of differences in their
complement of surface receptors or differences in their signal
transduction pathways. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Many (although not all) cues are evolutionarily conserved between vertebrates and more primitive invertebrate organisms, with species homologues performing similar roles in axon guidance. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Higher vertebrates typically have many more members within a given family of guidance
cues, and the cues likely to have overlapping
functions. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
There are currently approximately 20 known distinct semaphorin family members identified in higher vertebrates. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
Roughly a third of the semaphorin secreted molecules have a positively charged terminus that
is likely to fasten
them to cell surfaces or the extracellular matrix. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
The
remaining semaphorins
are transmembrane molecules, which are likely to act in the immediate vicinity of the cells that produce them. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
All semaphorin molecules contain the family's signature semaphorin domain, a
roughly 500 amino acid domain that is a key signaling element of the semaphorins. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
453 |
|
The semaphorin's
biological specificity
is at least in part determined by a relatively
short stretch of amino acids within the semaphorin domain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
The primary
receptors for semaphorins are members of the plexin family, transmembrane proteins that are distant relatives of the semaphorins themselves. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrins |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
The netrin family is smaller than the semaphorin family, with about half a dozen members identified in vertebrates. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrin also
appears to function as a long-range repellent, providing a push from behind for a group of axons that grow away from the midline, thus
illustrating the bifunctionality of guidance cues. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrins are
vertebrate homologues of
a protein of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a protein
similarly involved in both attracting some axons toward the nervous system midline and repelling other axons away from it. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrin homologues are also expressed at the midline of the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster, where they contribute to attracting axons to the midline. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrin receptors are members of immunoglobulin
gene superfamily. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrins and
their receptors vividly illustrate the remarkable conservation of axon guidance mechanisms during evolution. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Netrins as long-range guidance cues also
illustrate the fact that long-range and short range guidance mechanisms can be closely related. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
455 |
|
Although netrins are capable of long-range
attraction, they are closely
related in structure
to one region of the
archetypal nondiffusible
extracellular matrix. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
The axon
guidance molecules include members of the immunoglobulin gene family, extracellular matrix components, transmembrane phosphatases, and cadherins. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
Guidance Cues and the control of Actin
Polymerization |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
Guidance cues
are signaling molecules that influence cell biological
mechanisms by which growth
cones extended, turn, and retract. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
The forward
crawling motion of a growth cone depends on its own intrinsic motile mechanism
interacting with a permissive outside environment. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
Guidance cues
can affect the direction of growth cone advance by controlling actin polymerization that drives protrusion of the leading edge of the growth cone. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
A dense
meshwork of fibrillar
actin is concentrated at the leading age of the growth cone. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
456 |
|
New actin polymerization just behind the leading-edge effectively helps push it forward. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
459 |
|
Interactions
between Cytoskeleton
and Guidance Receptors |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
462 |
|
Guidance at the Midline -- Changing Responses to Multiple
Cues |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
463 |
|
Netrins
have a conserved function in attracting axons to the nervous system midline. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
469 |
|
Target selection, Topographic
maps, and Synapse formation |
|
6 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
470 |
|
Exuberant Axonal Connections and Collateral Elimination |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
470 |
|
The development of many axonal projections in the brain
is characterized by an initially exuberant, or widespread, growth of axons, followed by the elimination of functionally inappropriate axon segments and branches. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
492 |
|
Synapse Formation in the Central
Nervous System |
|
22 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
492 |
|
Neurons in
the central nervous system typically receive thousands of
synapses employing a variety of neurotransmitters. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
492 |
|
In the
first contact between axons and their neuronal targets, cells can express both pre-and postsynaptic components prior to synapse formation. The earliest contacts may be mediated
by filopodia that extend from either growing axons or dendrites. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
492 |
|
Activity is
likely to play an important role in regulating the behavior of filopodia. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
492 |
|
The effects of activity in regulating the behavior of filopodia are likely to be complex, as the motility and morphology of dendritic spines can be regulated differentially by synaptic activity. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
496 |
|
The diversity of synapses in the nervous system is likely to be
matched by an equally diverse array of mechanisms producing the synapses. |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
499 |
|
Programmed cell death and neurotrophic
factors |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
500 |
|
Major events
in the discovery and characterization of nerve growth factors and their importance for understanding neuronal cell
death
(table) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
502 |
|
Nerve growth factor -- the prototype target-derived neuronal survival factor. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
507 |
|
Neurotrophin Receptors |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
507 |
|
Nerve growth factor binds to a relatively small
number of very high
affinity binding sites and a second set of about 10-fold more abundant, but lower affinity, binding sites at higher concentrations. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
509 |
|
Neurotrophin Family and Its
Receptors (table) |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
510 |
|
Cytokines and Growth
Factors in the Nervous System |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
510 |
|
Cytokines
mediates cell interactions both outside and within the nervous system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
510 |
|
Although some aspects of
communication between neurons, including synaptic transmission in
neurotrophin signaling, are highly specialized and largely restricted to the
nervous system, others are not. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
510 |
|
All vertebrate organs and tissues regulate
growth and maintenance through diffusible signaling
molecules. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
511 |
|
Cytokines
and Growth Factors Families (table) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
511 |
|
Neurotrophic Factors Have Multiple Activities |
|
0 |
Squire;
Fundamental Neuroscience |
511 |
|
Neurotrophic factors that prevent neuronal death during development appear to have many other
important biological activities, including
effects on cell proliferation, migration,
differentiation, axonal growth and sprouting, alterations in dendritic arbors, and functional plasticity of the nervous system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
517 |
|
Programmed cell death of neurons is widespread in invertebrate and vertebrate species. |
|
6 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
525 |
|
Programmed cell death is regulated by interactions with targets, afferents, and nonneuronal cells. |
|
8 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
533 |
|
Synapse Elimination |
|
8 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
537 |
|
A Role for
Interaxonal Competition |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
541 |
|
Spatial patterning of connectivity by synapse elimination |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
545 |
|
Activity Is
Required for Synapse Elimination |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
556 |
|
Early experience and Critical periods |
|
11 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
577 |
|
Fundamentals of Sensory Systems |
|
21 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
591 |
|
Sensory Transduction |
|
14 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
631 |
|
Taste and Olfaction |
|
40 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
668 |
|
Somatosensory system |
|
37 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
699 |
|
Audition |
|
31 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
700 |
|
Drawing of the Auditory Periphery (diagram), external ear middle ear,
inner ear -- three
middle ear ossicles: malleus,
incus, stapes -- inner
ear: cochlea of the auditory system, semi
circular canals of the vestibular
system. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The function of the middle ear is to ensure efficient
transmission of sound from air into the fluid of the inner ear. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
Then middle
ear begins at the tympanic membrane (eardrum), continues with the three middle
ear ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), and ends at the footplate of the stapes, which contacts the inner ear fluid at the oval
window of the cochlea. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
Because the area
of the eardrum is larger (by about 35 times) than the area of the stapes footplate, there is a
corresponding increase
in pressure from the eardrum to the stapes footplate. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The mechanism of the ossicles of the middle ear provide a pressure gain of about 20 to 30 dB in the middle frequencies over what would be achieved by sound
striking the oval
window directly. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
When sound
conduction through the middle
ear is compromised, a patient has a conductive
hearing loss. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The inner
ear is located deep
within the head. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The inner
ear contains the cochlea, which is the sensory organ for the auditory system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The sensory
organ of the cochlea, the organ of Corti, contains the receptor cells (hair cells) and supporting cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
701 |
|
The organ
of Corti rests on the basilar
membrane and is covered by the tectorial membrane. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
702 |
|
Sound-induced vibrations of the middle ear are transmitted into the cochlea
fluids and then to the basilar
membrane and organ of
Corti. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
The contribution of outer hair cells to boost the response of the basilar membrane as led investigators to designate the outer hair cells as a "cochlea amplifier" of basilar membrane motion. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
Amplification
is a key function for
outer hair cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
Hair cells transduce the mechanical
energy of sound into electrical receptor
potentials when hair
cells stereocilia are displaced. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
In the sound
stimulated cochlea, stereocilia
are deflected when the tectorial
membrane, which overlies
of stereocilia, moves
differently than the bodies of the hair cells in the organ of Corti on top of the basilar membrane. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
The tips of outer hair cell stereocilia may contact the tectorial
membrane directly, whereas the tips of inner
hair cells stereocilia may end just beneath the tectorial membrane and be displaced by fluid movements caused by motion of the tectorial membrane. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
Within the inner ear, fluids are contained in three compartments known as scalae
-- scala tympani, scala media, and scala vestibuli. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
The scalae extend in parallel along the length of the cochlea from the base to the apex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
The organ
of Corti, which contains the hair cells, is located at the junction between endolymph and perilymph. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
703 |
|
Endolymph increases the
sensitivity of the hair cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
704 |
|
Sensorineural hearing loss often results from damage to hair cells. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
704 |
|
Cochlear Implants |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
705 |
|
Auditory Nerve |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
705 |
|
Hair cells
receive there innervation from neurons of the spiral ganglion, located in the central core of the cochlea. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
705 |
|
Primary auditory neurons send peripheral axons to the hair cells and central axons into the brain by way of the auditory nerve, a subdivision of the eighth
cranial nerve. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Two types
of afferent neurons separately innervate the inner and outer hair cells. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Type I neurons send processes to contact inner hair cells, almost always
contacting a single hair cell. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Type II neurons are thin
and unmyelinated and transmit information much more
slowly. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Both type I and type II afferent fibers project
centrally into the
cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Type I neurons total about 95% of the afferent population (about 30,000 in humans), whereas type II neurons total only about 5%. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Outer hair cells, which number over three-quarters
of the receptor cell
population, are innervated
by only a small
minority of the afferent neurons. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
The
functional role for the inner hair cells and type I neurons is to serve as the
main channel for sound-evoked information flow into
the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
The functional
role for the outer
hair cells is to serve as the cochlear amplifier and enhance basilar membrane sensitivity and tuning and to increase the sensitivity of inner hair cell and type I responses. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Outer hair cells do make a large contribution to information sent to the brain, and this contribution is via
the inner cells and type I neurons. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Outer hair cells may also transmit information to the brain via their type II afferent
neurons. What type of
information these type
II neurons transmit is unknown. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
706 |
|
Auditory responses are sharply tuned to frequency. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
The information available to the brain via the auditory nerve is determined by which nerve fibers are responding and the rate and
time pattern of the spikes
in each fiber. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
Graphs of minimum sound pressure level for a
neural response are
known as tuning curves. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
The lowest
point on the tuning
curve is a characteristic
frequency (CF). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
At low
sound levels, the tuning
curve is very narrow, indicating that the fiber
responds only to a narrow
band of frequencies near the characteristic frequency. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
The sharply tuned to a region of
the tuning curve is likely generated by the active motility of the outer hair
cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
At high
sound levels, the tuning
curve becomes much
wider, especially for
frequencies below the characteristic
frequency. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
The response to a broad range of frequencies likely reflects the passive
mechanical characteristics of basilar membrane motion with little contribution from outer hair cells. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
Phase locking
of responses is a property of auditory nerve fibers. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
Responses of auditory nerve
fibers can show time locked discharges at particular phases within the cycle
of a sound waveform, a property known as phase locking. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
707 |
|
Although locked to a particular
phase, there is generally not a spike for every waveform peak. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
Phase locking decreases for
frequencies above 1 to 3 kHz. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
For low frequencies,
phase-locked information is carried by auditory nerve fibers to the brain
stem. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
A temporal code for sound
frequency may be important for low sound frequencies where phase locking is
robust. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
Phase locking
is diminished at high frequencies were coding for sound frequency is almost certainly via a place
code. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
The response of a single
auditory nerve fiber increases with sound level until the point at which the
rate of the fiber is saturated. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
The dynamic range over which the
rate of most fibers increases is generally between 20 and 30 dB, with some
fibers showing somewhat greater dynamic ranges. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
How can the auditory nerve
signal the large range in level of audible sound from 0 to 100 dB? |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
It is likely that as the sound
level increases, more and more fibers that are tuned to other characteristic
frequencies began to respond, because tuning curves become broader at higher
sound levels. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
Auditory nerve fibers vary in
their sensitivity to sound, and as sound level increases, the less sensitive
fibers begin to respond. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
708 |
|
Sensitivity of fibers at a given characteristic
frequency varies by
as much as 70 dB. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
The spontaneous
rate of firing is the
rate when there is no stimulus. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Spontaneous rates of firing vary from one fiber to another over the
range of 0 to 100 spikes/sec. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Although there may be a continuum of spontaneous rates, three main groups of fibers have
been defined. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Low
spontaneous rates -- <0.5
spikes/sec. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Medium
spontaneous rates -- 0.5 to 17.5
spikes/sec. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
High
spontaneous rates -- >17.5
spikes/sec. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
The groups of spontaneous firing rates predict many physiological and
anatomical characteristics of auditory nerve fibers. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
High spontaneous rate fibers have higher sensitivities than medium and low spontaneous rate fibers. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Low and medium spontaneous rate fibers give off the largest number of terminals in
the cochlear nucleus
of the brainstem. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Low spontaneous rate fibers may
be less sensitive, but they likely play important roles in detecting changes
in sounds at high sound levels. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
709 |
|
Low spontaneous rate fibers can signal changes at high
sound levels because their low sensitivity causes them to respond mostly at
higher sound levels and because they have less tendency to saturate. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
710 |
|
Olivocochlear afferents alter
the responses of hair cells and nerve fibers. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
710 |
|
Almost all hair
cell systems have abundant
efferent innervations
of the sensory
endorgans. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
710 |
|
Cochlear afferent neurons have cell bodies in the superior olivary complex of the brainstem and project to the cochlea. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
711 |
|
Auditory pathways are tonotopically organized. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
711 |
|
Simplified schematic of the pathways of the ascending auditory system of a
generalized mammal. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
727 |
|
Vision |
|
16 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
755 |
|
Fundamentals of Motor Systems |
|
28 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
757 |
|
Central Pattern Generating networks (CPGs). -- (diagram) |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
759 |
|
Location of different central pattern generator (CPG)
networks that coordinate premotor patterns in vertebrates. -- (diagram) |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
767 |
|
Spinal cord, Muscle, and
Locomotion |
|
8 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
776 |
|
Motor programs within the spinal cord. |
|
9 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
776 |
|
Spinal central pattern generating circuits (CPGs). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
776 |
|
CPG's
provide a framework for understanding rhythmic
movements that are performed
relatively automatically, such as breathing,
chewing, scratching, and walking. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
776 |
|
CPG movements
rely heavily on spinal interneuron networks to coordinate the timing and sequence of activation and innervation between motor
neuron pools innervating different muscles. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
777 |
|
Breathing
relies heavily on brain stem and spinal CPGs. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
779 |
|
Building blocks of CPG's |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
779 |
|
Mutually excitatory connections between cells promote synchronous firing, whereas mutually inhibitory connections tend to produce oscillations. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
779 |
|
Membrane properties, arising
from the receptors and ion channels of individual neurons, can be used
flexibly to produce rhythmic activity because their efficacy can be modulated
by synaptic activity. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
779 |
|
At least some neurons in the network will
have the capacity to generate bursts of spikes, prolonged
polarizations, or endogenous oscillations. This occurs because
some neurons may express voltage- or
activity-dependent ion channels, which serve as pacemakers. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
779 |
|
Pattern generation emerges as the total activity of the components of a network -- the same network may produce different rhythms through
combinations or functional reconfiguration of the components. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
780 |
|
Locomotor CPGs in mammals are
distributed along several spinal segments. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
792 |
|
Descending control of movement |
|
12 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
793 |
|
Vestibular canals (diagram) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
793 |
|
Vestibular plasticity. "sea legs", astronauts |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
806 |
|
Somatotopic organization in the
motor cortex. |
|
13 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Basal ganglia
and cerebellum send
the output via the thalamus to the cortical motor systems. |
|
9 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Basal ganglia
and cerebellum
connect to separate areas of the thalamus. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Basal ganglia and cerebellum have opposite effects -- basal
ganglia output is
inhibitory; cerebellar output is excitatory. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Basal ganglia
and cerebellum have roles in non-motor behavior, including cognition, emotion, and possibly others. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Basal ganglia are large subcortical structures comprising several interconnected
nuclei in the forebrain,
midbrain, and diencephalon. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Location of basal
ganglia in the human brain (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
815 |
|
Subthalamic nucleus -- diagram |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
816 |
|
Basal ganglia receive a broad spectrum of cortical inputs. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
816 |
|
Basal ganglia
include the striatum
(caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens), the subthalamic
nucleus (STN), the globus
pallidus (internal segment or GPi; external
segment or GPe; and ventral pallidum), and the substantia
nigra (pars compact or SNpc and pars reticular or
SNpr). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
816 |
|
Basal Ganglia |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
Striatum
and STN receive the majority of inputs from outside the
basal ganglia. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
Most inputs
to the basal ganglia come from the cerebral cortex, but thalamic nuclei also provide strong inputs to the striatum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
No direct inputs to basal ganglia from peripheral sensory or motor
systems. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
Bulk of outputs from basal ganglia arises from GPi and SNpr and is inhibitory to thalamic nuclei into brain stem. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
Striatum is
located in the forebrain
and comprises the caudate nucleus and putamen (neostriatum) and nucleus
accumbens (ventral striatum). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
817 |
|
Named striatum because axon fibers passing
through the striatum give it a striped appearance. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Striatum
receives excitatory input from nearly all of the cerebral cortex. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Projection
from the cerebral cortex to the striatum has a roughly topographical organization. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Within the somatosensory and motor projection to the striatum, there is a preservation of somatotopy. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Although the topography and somatotopy imply a certain degree
of parallel organization,
there is also convergence and divergence in the corticostriatal projection. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
The convergent
and divergent
organization provides an anatomical framework for
the integration and transformation of information from several areas of the cerebral cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Striatal neurons also receive inputs from intralaminar and
ventrolateral nuclei of the thalamus. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Striatal neurons also receive a large input from dopamine (DA)-containing neurons and the SNpc. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
818 |
|
Location of dopaminergic
terminals puts them in a position to modulate transmission from the cerebral cortex to the striatum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
819 |
|
Five types
of G protein-coupled
DA receptors. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
819 |
|
Hypothetical parallel
segregated circuits connecting the basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
823 |
|
Disagreement
among basal ganglia experts whether to view the overall anatomic organization of the basal ganglia as convergent or multiple parallel segregated
loops. |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
825 |
|
Gpi and SNpr form the output of the basal ganglia. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
825 |
|
Neurons in
the basal ganglia
output structures are tonically
active with average firing rates of 60 to 80 Hz. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
825 |
|
Basal ganglia output
structures are organized
somatotopically with
the leg and arm in GPi and the face and eyes
in SNpr. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
826 |
|
Changes in the activity of basal ganglia occur at the onset of movement, but after the muscles are already
active, they are unlikely
to initiate movement. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
827 |
|
Putamen is inactivated
unilaterally -- result is slightly slow movement of the contralateral limb. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
827 |
|
Although movement
is slow after putamen lesions,
reaction time is generally normal, indicating movement initiation is intact. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
827 |
|
Huntington's disease (HD) -- marked loss of neurons in the striatum. -- Chorea; frequent, brief, sudden,
random twitch-like movements that involve all parts of the body and resemble fragments of normal voluntary
movement. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
827 |
|
Mechanism for chorea -- disinhibition of GPE neurons causes inhibition of STN and GPi, resulting in abnormal overactivity of motor
cortical and brainstem mechanisms. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
832 |
|
Basal ganglia are active relatively late in relation
to movement. |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
833 |
|
Inhibitory
output neurons fire
tonically at high
frequencies. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
833 |
|
Output of
the basal ganglia is analogous to a brake. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
833 |
|
When a movement is initiated by
particular motor pattern generator, GPi neurons projecting to that generator
decrease their discharge, thereby removing the tonic inhibition and
"releasing the break" on that generator. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
GPi neurons
projecting to other movement pattern generators increase their firing rate,
thereby increasing inhibition and applying a "brake" on those generators. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
Basal ganglia
participate in a variety of non-motor functions, including functions of the limbic
system and cognitive
functions. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
Outputs of
the basal ganglia go
to all areas of the frontal cortex, placing the basal ganglia in a position to influence a wide variety of behaviors. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
Basal ganglia
have been implicated in a variety of non-motor disorders, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
Intrinsic circuitry is the same for cognitive and motor
parts of the basal
ganglia. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
834 |
|
Chorea is
characterized by excessive involuntary movements; obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by excessive
involuntary thoughts and complex behaviors. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
835 |
|
Long-term potentiation and long-term depression in striatal neurons are likely to play an important role in learning. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
835 |
|
Huntington's disease |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
836 |
|
Obsessive-compulsive disorder |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
837 |
|
Tourette's syndrome (TS) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
838 |
|
Other brain structures have been implicated in procedural
learning, including the cerebellum. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
841 |
|
Cerebellum |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
842 |
|
Dorsal view
of cerebellum and brain stem -- caudate nucleus,
putamen, internal capsule, thalamus, vermis, cerebellar peduncle. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
842 |
|
Cerebellum
is connected to the brain stem bilaterally by three cerebellar peduncles, which carry
information to and from
the cerebellum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
842 |
|
In humans, fibers of the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles carry approximately 0.8, 20, and
0.5 million fibers respectively. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
843 |
|
Cerebellar microcircuitry is largely homogeneous across the surface. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
843 |
|
Cerebral cortex is a three-layered, folded sheet of gray matter, only 1 mm thick and largely homogeneous throughout the whole
cerebellum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
843 |
|
Cerebellar cortex contains a single type of efferent neuron, the Purkinje cell, which are inhibitory and project to the cerebellar
nucleus and to the vestibular
nucleus, and five main
classes of interneuron,
three of which are inhibitory. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
843 |
|
Cerebellar microcircuitry -- transverse view: (1) molecular layer, (2) Purkinje cell
layer, (3) granular layer, (4) white matter.
(diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
844 |
|
Cerebellar cortex receives two main types of
afferents: (1) mossy
fibers, (2) climbing
fibers. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Dendritic tree of the Purkinje cell arises from the apex of the cell
body and branches profusely in the molecular layer. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Dendritic tree of the Purkinje
cell is fan shaped, like a tree trained to grow flat against a railing, and extends in a plane
perpendicular to the
main axis of the folium. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Granular layer contains an enormous number
(billions) of granule
cells, which are the smallest
neurons found in the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Cerebellar granule cells outnumber the sum of all other
neurons in the central
nervous system. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Axons of granular cells ascend into the molecular layer where they bifurcate to form parallel fibers which may
reach a length of 6-8 mm. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
845 |
|
Cerebellar modular signal
processing scheme (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
847 |
|
Complexity
is a collective property whose source is to be found in connectivity. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
847 |
|
Recursive networks incorporate feedback loops to sustain iterative dynamical processes
based on continuous update of network state. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
849 |
|
Microcircuitry in similar across the entire cerebellum, suggesting that signal processing operations are modular. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
850 |
|
Climbing fibers arise from the inferior olive, which is a complex of larger and smaller subnuclei
located in the ventral medulla oblongata. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
853 |
|
Innervation
of a Purkinje cell by
an individual climbing fiber, virtually climbing all of the proximal
dendrites and making multiple
excitatory synapses. |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
853 |
|
Purkinje Cells (PCs) have two
characteristic types of discharge: (1) repetitive simple spikes that are
mediated by parallel fiber (PF) input and (2) occasional complex
spikes that are mediated by climbing fiber (CF) input. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
854 |
|
Cells and circuitry of the cerebellar cortex (diagram) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
856 |
|
Mossy fiber signals that conveys state information to the cerebellum. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
856 |
|
Mitochondria
that fuel the manufacturing of vesicles. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
856 |
|
Golgi cell inhibition appears to function like an automatic
gain control, normalizing the amount of PF input
so as not to overwhelm the PCs, but at the same time allowing the
PS state vector to express many diverse patterns. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
856 |
|
MF-granule cell system should create an expanded
representation of state that is kept sparse by Golgi inhibition. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
856 |
|
Short-term storage of state information about the orientation of the organism that is
characteristic of the vestibulocerebellum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
857 |
|
CF pathway
originates in the inferior
olive of the brain stem. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
857 |
|
Inferior olive cells display of electrical activity, analogous to that present in the heart -- action potentials with long plateaus followed by a long refractory periods -- causing CFs to fire at very low rates (irregular at about 1/s) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
857 |
|
Combined excitatory and inhibitory input helps signal the occurrences of errors. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
857 |
|
Olivary cells
are coupled to each other electrotonically and show a slight tendency to oscillate at approximately 10 Hz. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
862 |
|
Classically conditioned reflex -- one of the first forms of learning to be analyzed neurobiologically. |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
862 |
|
Conditioned eye blink reflex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
862 |
|
Plasticity
in the cerebellum is
probably only responsible for adjusting the
metrics of the motor
response and not for making the associative link between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
867 |
|
Development
of the climbing fiber-Purkinje cell pathway (diagram) |
|
5 |
Squire;
Fundamental Neuroscience |
867 |
|
After the
Purkinje cells have reached the cortical plate, climbing fibers enter the
cerebellum from the inferior
olive and began to innervate the Purkinje cells, with each Purkinje cell receiving input from several climbing fibers. Much later, most of the climbing fiber contacts with the Purkinje cells will be eliminated, leaving a private line of one climbing fiber per Purkinje cell. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
867 |
|
Extend toward the underlying Purkinje cells, utilizing the radial Bergmann
fibers as a scaffold. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
867 |
|
Granule cell
emits short processes or protodendrites that search
the developing mossy fiber terminals to establish connections. Successively, some of the protodendrites are pruned. |
|
0 |
Squire;
Fundamental Neuroscience |
869 |
|
Cerebellar development: (1) Motor side of the cerebral circuit (deep nuclear cells and Purkinje cells) forms first. (2) Sensory side of the cerebral circuit (mossy fibers (MFs) and climbing fibers (CFs)) forms
next. (3) Matrix that connects the two (the granule cells and the intrinsic inhibitory neurons) is
the last to develop. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellum
is critical also for thought, behavior, and emotion. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
PET and fMRI in humans have revealed sites of activation in the cerebellum in a number of cognitive tasks. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Topographic organization of the sites within the cerebellum activated by a different cognitive
processes. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Interactions
between a mossy and climbing fiber systems prompted the hypothesis
that the cerebellum
provides an error detection mechanism for the motor system. This mechanism may also be relevant for mental operations. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellum
is able to subserve cognitive
functions because it is anatomically
interconnected with the associative and paralympic cortices. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cognitive
and behavioral functions
are organized topographically within the cerebellum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellar
contribution to cognition is one of modulation rather than generation. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellum
performs computations for cognitive functions similar to
those for the sensorimotor system -- but the information being modulated is different. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Disruption of the cerebellar influences on higher functions leads to dysmetria of thought. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellum
appears to be the most sophisticated signal processing structure of the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Cerebellum
regulates functions that are localized in other parts of the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Through its many mossy fibers and granule cells, Purkinje cells are presented with
an enormously diverse input that reflects the state of the
body, the state of the
environment, and the internal
state of the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
870 |
|
Through the
training influence of its climbing fibers, Purkinje cells learn to detect the
occurrences of complex patterns of state, which mark the times at which they need to use their powerful inhibition to shape cerebellar output in order to regulate populations of neurons in other parts of the brain. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
871 |
|
Oldest modules of the cerebellum regulate the motor commands that orient the eyes and head. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
871 |
|
Newest modules in the cerebellum, located in the hemispheres,
regulate signals in the cerebral
cortex that plan,
perceive, and solve
problems. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
873 |
|
Eye movements |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
897 |
|
Hypothalamus:
overview of regulatory systems |
|
24 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
913 |
|
Central control of Autonomic
functions: Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System |
|
16 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
935 |
|
Neural regulation of the Cardiovascular system |
|
22 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
967 |
|
Neural control of Breathing |
|
32 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
991 |
|
Food intake and Metabolism |
|
24 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1011 |
|
Water intake and Body Fluids |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1031 |
|
Neuroendocrine systems |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1067 |
|
Circadian timing |
|
36 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1085 |
|
Sleep, dreaming, and wakefulness |
|
18 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1105 |
|
Visual pathways -- (1) what an object is, occipitotemporal or ventral processing stream; (2) where an object is; occipitoparietial, dorsal
processing stream. |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1106 |
|
In humans there is a requirement for sleep immediately following learning. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1109 |
|
Motivation and reward |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1121 |
|
Less is known about the role of
the amygdala in positive
affective functions than
in its role in aversive functions. |
|
12 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1121 |
|
Portions of the amygdala function in associated processes that contribute appetitive
behavior. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1124 |
|
Motivational
and emotional information processing occurs and limbic and cortical regions -- (diagram) |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1124 |
|
Anterior cingulate, nucleus
accumbens, mediodorsal thalamic nucleus "loop"
for motivation.--
(diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1124 |
|
"Joggers high" |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1125 |
|
Neural systems controlling aversive motivation are probably distinct from those controlling appetitive motivation. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1125 |
|
Motivation
is a complex behavioral process that depends on internal stimuli (homeostasis) and
by external incentives
dependent on learning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1125 |
|
Neural control of motivational processes is distributed throughout the brain and is
powerfully modulated by the activity of neurotransmitters
systems such a dopamine. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1127 |
|
Drug reward
and addiction |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1147 |
|
Human brain evolution |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1151 |
|
Homology and analogy |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1152 |
|
Not the case that one opinion is as good as the next,
although such a view has allowed poorly founded
theories to persist. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1153 |
|
Evolutionary origin of
neocortex. (diagram) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Nothing quite like the neocortex exists in reptiles. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
All living mammals have a thick cortex that is divided into layers having different cell types and packing densities. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Six layers of cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Layer 4 receives
activating inputs from
the thalamus or from other parts of the cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Layer 3 communicates
with other regions of the cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Layer 5
projects to subcortical structures. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Deepest layer 6 sends feedback to the thalamic nuclei or cortical
area providing activating
inputs. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1154 |
|
Neocortex
has changed by diversifying its neuron types, differentiating its laminar structure in various ways, altering connections, changing in overall size and in the sizes of individual cortical areas,
adding cortical areas, and dividing areas into specialized
modular processing units or cortical columns. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1159 |
|
Evolution of apes and humans
(diagram) |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1167 |
|
Brain maturation progresses well into adolescence. |
|
8 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1167 |
|
Cognitive development and aging |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1187 |
|
Dyslexia |
|
20 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1199 |
|
Epilepsy |
|
12 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1201 |
|
Visual perception of objects |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1203 |
|
Object Recognition -- inferior temporal (IT) cortex. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1215 |
|
Human brain has ventral and dorsal processing streams. |
|
12 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1218 |
|
Prosopagnosia
-- specific deficit of
face recognition. |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1223 |
|
Prosopagnosia,
a selective deficit in recognizing faces, is associated with damage to the occipitotemporal
cortex, including the fusiform
gyrus. |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1224 |
|
Faces --
cortical representation appears to be relatively circumscribed. Objects -- represented by a distributed pattern of activity
across a broad expanse of ventral temporal cortex. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1229 |
|
Spatial cognition |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1245 |
|
Hippocampus
-- primitive cortex, allocortex, underside of the temporal lobe. |
|
16 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1249 |
|
Attention |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
The network mediating spatial attention in humans
centers around frontal
and parietal cortical areas. |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
Spatial neglect in humans can result from unilateral lesions at several cortical sites, most
notably the parietal lobe, frontal lobe, and anterior cingulate cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
A highly
interconnected fronto-cingulo-parietal
network is crucial for the control of spatial attention. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
The parietal,
frontal, and
cingulate cortices are sites of heavy sensory and motor convergence. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
The network mediating spatial attention has access to limbic system information regarding motivational value or behavioral significance. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1253 |
|
At this subcortical
level, lesions of the
basal ganglia or the pulvinar thalamic nucleus, which
is heavily connected
with the parietal cortex, can also cause neglect. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1271 |
|
Panic disorder |
|
18 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1275 |
|
Learning and Memory: Basic
Mechanisms |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1276 |
|
Classical conditioning -- procedure introduced by Pavlov |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1277 |
|
Eric Kandel,
Aplysia, Nobel Prize |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1286 |
|
LTP occurs
in a variety of neural synapses. |
|
9 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1286 |
|
Schematic of a hippocampal brain
slice. (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1286 |
|
Schematic of transverse
hippocampal brain slice from rat (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1289 |
|
Postsynaptic spine, LTP, LTD.
(diagram) |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1289 |
|
Schematic depicts a postsynaptic
spine with events leading to LTP or LTD with various sources of Ca2+. (diagram) |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1291 |
|
LTP is not the exclusive means for the
expression of neuronal plasticity associated with learning and
memory. |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1291 |
|
Enhancement of excitability of sensory neurons. Short-term and long-term sensitization and classical
conditioning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1292 |
|
Schematic representation of
possible loci for cellular changes involved in the enhancement of
synaptic efficacy. (diagram) |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1295 |
|
Autoassociation network for recognition memory. (diagram) |
|
3 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1299 |
|
Learning and Memory: Brain systems |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1301 |
|
Case of amnesic
patient HM |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1303 |
|
Current conception of the major
memory systems in the brain (diagram) |
|
2 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Declarative memory |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Studies of HM and other amnesic patients reveal characteristics of memory dependent on the hippocampus and surrounding cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients can remember material learned long before the accident, disease,
or operation that caused the amnesia. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Memory for language and childhood events are intact in the amnesia patients. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
The capacity for short-term memory (working memory)
is typically intact
in amnesia patients. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
The "span" of short-term memory is normal in amnesia patients. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Memory deficit in amnesia patients is evident as soon as immediate
memory span is exceeded or after a delay is interposed that includes some distraction to interrupt rehearsal. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Deficit in forming
long-term memories is specific to declarative memory in amnesia patients. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients are impaired at learning specific personal
events (episodic memory) and at learning new facts (semantic memory). |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients are impaired whenever the memory task requires the explicit expression of memory, as in free recall or recognition. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients demonstrate normal acquisition of a broad variety of tasks that involve implicit expression of biases, skills, or habits. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients can demonstrate robust "priming," an increase in speed or ability to reproduce recently perceive stimuli, even when they cannot recall or
recognize the previously
studied items. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1304 |
|
Amnesia patients can perform perfectly normally in the acquisition of motor skills. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
The declarative
memory system is composed of three major components -- cerebral cortical areas, a
collection of cortical areas surrounding the
hippocampus, and the hippocampus itself. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
Cerebral cortical areas involved in declarative memory are comprised
of diverse and widespread "association" regions
that are both a source
of information to the hippocampal
region and the targets of hippocampal output. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
Cortical regions involved in declarative memory project to the cortical region adjacent to the
hippocampus, including the perrirhinal cortex, the parahippocampal cortex and entorhinal cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
The cortical
region adjacent to the hippocampus serves as a convergence site for input from the cortical association
areas and mediates the distribution
of cortical afferents to the hippocampus. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
Cortical areas adjacent to the hippocampus send major efferents to multiple subdivisions of the hippocampus itself, i.e. the dentate gyrus, the CA3 and CA1
areas, and the subiculum.. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
Within the hippocampus, there are broadly divergent and convergent connections that mediate a large network of associations. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
Connections within the hippocampus support forms of long term potentiation that could
participate in the rapid coding of novel conjunctions of information. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1305 |
|
The outcomes of hippocampal
processing are directed back to the adjacent cortical areas, and the outputs
of that region are directed in turn back to the same cortical areas in the
cerebral cortex that were the source of the inputs. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
The term consolidation characterizes two kinds of brain events that affect the stability of memory after learning. |
|
5 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
One consolidation
event involves a fixation
of plasticity within synapses over a period of minutes or hours through a
sequence of protein synthesis and morphological changes in synapses. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
Another consolidation
event involves a reorganization
of memories, which occurs over weeks to years following new learning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
The prolonged consolidation occurs in
the declarative memory system and is thought to involve interactions between the medial temporal region and the cerebral cortex. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
Long-term retention is impaired if damage to the hippocampus or adjacent cortex occurrs shortly after learning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
If damage to the hippocampus or adjacent
cortex is delayed by several days or weeks, subjects perform normally. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
A process involving the hippocampus or the surrounding cortical region is required for post learning processing over a
period of at least several days. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1310 |
|
Widespread areas of the neocortex contain the details of the
information that is to be remembered, and medial temporal area support the
capacity to retrieve the memory during this period shortly after
learning. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Medial temporal areas reactivate the cortical representations repeatedly, inducing plasticity and intra-cortical connections that
provide the permanent linkages and organization of the cortical memory. |
|
1 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
The same
representational function the hippocampus provides in encoding and linking episodic memories at the time of learning continues for a period to support the establishment of intracortical linkages of
memories within a large-scale memory network. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Structures
important for declarative memory include association areas of the neocortex, the cortical regions surrounding the
hippocampus, and the
hippocampus. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Procedural memory |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Procedural memory underlies the habits, skills, and sensori-motor
adaptations that occur constantly in the
background of all of our intentional and planned behavior. Because this kind of memory generally falls
outside of consciousness, we take it for granted. |
|
0 |
Squire;
Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Procedural memory is mediated by two anatomically
and functionally distinct subsystems. One type involves the acquisition of habits and skills, the capacity for a broad
variety of stereotyped
and unconscious behavioral repertoires. The other type of
procedural memory involves specific sensory-to-motor
adaptations and adjustments
of reflexes. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Acquisition of habits and skills can involve simple refinements of particular, often-repeated motor patterns, and
can extend to the learning of long action
sequences in response to highly complex stimuli. They
include both the acquisition of skills (e.g. skiing, piano playing) and the unique elements of personal style and tempo. A key structure of
this subsystem is the neostratum, a major components of the basal
ganglia. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1311 |
|
Sensory-to-motor adaptations and adjustments of reflexes includes changing the force that one exerts to compensate for a
new load or acquiring conditioned
reflexes that involve
associating novel motor responses to a new stimulus. A key structure of
this subsystem is the cerebellum. |
|
0 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1315 |
|
Emotional memory |
|
4 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1329 |
|
Search |
|
14 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1353 |
|
Prefrontal cortex and executive
brain functions |
|
24 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1367 |
|
Attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) |
|
14 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1377 |
|
Executive control and thought |
|
10 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
1385 |
|
Schizophrenia |
|
8 |
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|